Determining the scope of the project:

As determined in 2009 and presented at the recent Exploration Gateways Conference, JAXA has created a comprehensive overview of their strategy for developing their space program both in the manned and unmanned arenas.

Capitalizing off their success with the Kibo lab complex (two pressurized, habitable modules and an external experiment pallet), the HTV transfer vehicle, Hayabusa, and three (3) residency stays on the International Space Station – with at least two more upcoming in 2012 and 2013/14, Japan is looking to make their space program more robust – an approach that began in 2009 with the Space Basic Plan.

Under this plan, JAXA aimed to understand and enhance their Land, Sea Observing Satellite system coverage in the Asian region, their Earth Environment, Weather Observing Satellite systems, their Advanced Communication Satellite system, their positioning satellite system, and their National Security Satellite system.

A Program Research and Development group also set out to enhance JAXA’s Space Science, Manned, and Space Solar Power System (SSPS) programs.

To accomplish the task of enhancing their Space Science and Manned programs, JAXA conducted “a one year study of [their] strategy for lunar exploration by robotic and possibly human” activity.

Seeking to capitalize from their recent exploration of the moon – a field of study for Japan which greatly increased from 2007 to 2009 with the SELENE (or Kaguya) lunar orbiter mission, the one year lunar exploration study group  – comprised of members from the industry, jurists, academics, astronauts, and sociologists – created three main objectives for the one year study.

These objectives included the clarification of the exploration objectives and roadmap for technological development; the proposal of a “concrete plan for robotic lunar exploration for science and utilization, foreseeing manned lunar exploration afterward;” and the establishment of a strategy for international cooperation.

For this study, the group was organized under the Minister of State for Space Policy. The group worked on the study from August 2009 to July 2010 before issuing their report.

Since the filing of that report in July 2010 until the Exploration Gateways Conference later in the year, budget requests for the implementation of the proposals from the report were not forthcoming.

Nevertheless, the proposal itself recommended a three phased approach to JAXA’s lunar exploration program.

The proposal would begin in 2015 with the launch and initial operations of the SELENE-2 mission – a direct follow-up to the SELENE mission from 2007-2009.

The mission would represent the first lunar landing for Japan and would be classed as a short-term investigations mission. At this time, a 2015 launch date is still possible – but only if funding materializes quickly.

This SELENE-2 mission would, under the recommendations of the study participants, lead to the SELENE-X mission in 2020 – a robotics exploration mission based on the assemblage of a base on the south polar region of the moon for long-term investigation and sample return.

This mission would require a lunar robot capable of collecting samples from the lunar surface and a sample return craft.

Together, these two proposed missions would allow Japan to fulfill the third part of the phased approach for the robotics side of the lunar exploration proposal: demonstrating leadership in the international collaboration arena.

But the lunar robotic exploration missions were not the only recommendations brought forth by the study group. Human space exploration approaches were also highlighted, including the research and development of “basic technologies for human transportation systems by around 2020.”

This basic technology includes safety enhancement of rocket engines, the study and incorporation of emergent escape technologies, the development of a human-rated reentry system, and the development of Environment Control and Life Support System (ELCSS) technologies.

These emergent technologies would enable the leveraging of other JAXA space activities, including robotic lunar exploration, H-IIA/B launch operations, and ISS utilization and operation for technology demonstration – thus fulfilling the usefulness of the International Space Station as a test-bed for future missions beyond Low Earth Orbit.

Importantly, for this phase of the project, the JAXA study team emphasized, as did the presentation panel at the Exploration Gateways Conference, that “International cooperation is mandatory for human space exploration!” – again pointing out the need to come together for the betterment of all (the ISS as the shining example) than to try to attempt things on our own.

Implementing the proposals - Building from past success:

In addition to the proposed/recommended process by the study group, the roadmap for space exploration for JAXA also includes desires for the exploration of what are labeled “primitive bodies.”

Building on the success of Hayabusa at an S-type asteroid, Nozomi at Mars, Ikaros (the solar sail craft), and Planet-C (the in-progress Venus Climate Orbiter mission which will enter orbit of Venus later this decade), JAXA is looking to continue its asteroid sample return success with the Hayabusa-2 and Hayabusa-Mk2 missions – the first of which would be to a C-type asteroid and the second to a D-type asteroid.

Also on the table for consideration is the BepiColombo mission in conjunction with ESA (European Space Agency) for the exploration of Mercury. The MELOS mission, a Martian orbiter, and a currently-unnamed Jupiter and Trojan asteroids exploration mission – classed as a joint international mission – are also under consideration.

Of the five missions outlined as potentialities for JAXA, only Hayabusa-2 has a proposed launch date (July 2014 with a June 2018 arrival at an asteroid and a December 2020 Earth Return date). No launch dates or proposed theoretical mission execution dates for the other four missions are available at this time as funding is not in place.

The Exploration Gateways Conference presentation also revealed that JAXA will – as always expected – continue its fervent commitment to the International Space Station via crewmembers Hoshide in 2012 and Wakata in 2013/2014.

The presentation also showed the rough launch schedule for the remaining five (5) HTVs – with HTVs 3-7 all represented with flights from 2012 through 2015.

After that, JAXA does list the possibility of further HTVs as TBD (To Be Determined) through the end of the Station’s lifetime – something that will be greatly dependent on US and Russian funding commitments past the 2020 life extension already granted by the Congress of the United States.

Technology development drive:

To foster this more robust space program, one that will hopefully include human-flight capabilities, certain and specific technological development scenarios will have to be realized – the first of which would be the development of human reentry and return capabilities.

“Thermal protection and lifting flight control of human vehicle during the atmosphere re-entry,” will need to be developed, notes the Exploration Gateways Conference presentation from JAXA.

“Slow descent, soft and precision land at the predetermined area of the earth,” will also be of high priority in the technological arena.

In fact, JAXA hopes to have an HTV-R (H-IIb Transfer Vehicle with return capability) by the middle of the decade – a vehicle which would demonstrate and prove the new technologies needed for human reentry and return processes.

In the long term, JAXA hopes to develop a true human-rated spaceship sometime in the late 2020s.

For this new spaceship, a new human-rated launcher will need to be developed.

“The human safety technologies are key for human launch vehicle,” notes the JAXA presentation. “Simple, reliable, and low cost cryogenic engine, FDIR (fault detection, isolation & recovery) technologies, Launch abort system for emergency escape,” are all of paramount importance.

Key technological develop is expected to continue through the 2010 decade, leading to a debut of the “next primary launch vehicle” in the early 2020s and full capabilities for human launch by the 2027/28 timeframe.

Likewise, ELCSS development will continue through the mid-2010s on the ground before moving up the ISS for in-space demonstrations of air and water revitalization equipment. CO2 removal, water recovery, and toilet and shower technology development will begin shortly thereafter and continue into 2021 before human spaceship, lander, and pressurized rover development begins.

JAXA is also aiming to develop new human orbital transfer technologies for low boil-off cryogenic propulsion technologies to be used for an orbital transfer vehicle set to debut in the late 2020s.

A pre-breathe-less spacesuit is also under development at this time, as is space medicine technologies to “verify medical safety techniques needed for human presence and establishment of long duration stay on the lunar surface.”

Specifically, a space radiation monitor, regolith and lunar dust control, mental and psychological support, telemedicine care, and space food are being drawn-up/analyzed.

For this space medicine part of JAXA’s development, two tech demos are scheduled on the ISS – one in approximately 2015 and the second in 2021.

(Images via JAXA)

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Ongoing Russian Soyuz problems and delays:

Following what was an extremely challenging 2011 due to numerous hardware failures – including the Progress M-12M and Fobos-Grunt spacecrafts – the Russian space agency Roscosmos continues to have bad luck in its quest to get its programs back on track.

Last week, reports emerged in the Russian media that the Soyuz TMA-04M/30S spacecraft, set to launch the next trio of Russian and American crewmembers to the ISS, had suffered a failure during routine testing.

It is understood at this time that the Descent Module (SA) of Soyuz TMA-04M was over-pressurised during leak checking, which, coupled with poor quality materials, caused welds to break in the hydrogen peroxide thruster propellant system. Specific causes of the over-pressurisation are unknown at this time, and a Russian commission is currently investigating the matter.

Due to the nature of the failure, pressure integrity of the Soyuz TMA-04M spacecraft is believed to have been compromised beyond repair, which means that the SA is question can no longer be used and must be scrapped.

Roscosmos have decided not to swap out the damaged SA with the SA intended for Soyuz TMA-05M/31S, as has been done in the past, and have instead opted to replace the entire Soyuz TMA-04M spacecraft – including SA, Orbital Module (BO), and Instrumentation and Propulsion Module (PAO) – with the Soyuz TMA-05M spacecraft, as swapping the entire spacecraft is quicker than de-integrating and re-integrating the SA from one Soyuz to the other.

Due to this swap-out of vehicles, the Soyuz TMA-04M launch must now be pushed back, since there is insufficient time to ready hardware originally intended for Soyuz TMA-05M for launch on Soyuz TMA-04M’s date. Also, since the Soyuz spacecraft originally intended for the Soyuz TMA-05M mission will now be used for Soyuz TMA-04M, the spacecraft for Soyuz TMA-05M must come from Soyuz TMA-06M, thus creating ripple-like delays for future Soyuz flights.

As detailed by NASA’s ISS Program Manager Mike “Suff” Suffredini at an ISS status press briefing late last week, following consultations between all the ISS international partners, it has been decided to push the Soyuz TMA-04M launch back from 30th March to 15th May, a delay of around 45 days for Russian cosmonauts Gennady Padalka & Sergey Revin, and NASA astronaut Joe Acaba.

In order to avoid a large gap of three-crew station operations between the return of the Soyuz TMA-22/28S spacecraft and the launch of Soyuz TMA-04M, the Soyuz TMA-22 return will also be delayed by around 45 days, from 16th March to 30th April.

The 45 day mission extension is not an issue however, since Soyuz TMA-22 arrived at the ISS back in mid-November 2011 around 45 days later than originally planned, due to the launch failure of the Progress M-12M/44P spacecraft in August. Thus, the delay in the Soyuz TMA-22 return only restores the mission to a normal duration, and thus doesn’t present any issues with leaving the Soyuz on-orbit past its 200 day orbital lifetime.

As for other Russian launches affected by the “ripple” of delays, The Soyuz TMA-05M/31S spacecraft will be delayed for 45 days, from 30th May to 15th July. Soyuz TMA-06M/32S will slip by roughly 20 days, from 26th September to 15th October, with Soyuz TMA-07M/33S slipping by roughly 10 days, from 26th November to 5th December.

As one Soyuz must depart the station before another can launch, the undocking and landing of Soyuz spacecraft prior to the launches noted above will slip by a similar amount to the delay of the launch in question, in order to preserve the preferred two-week gap of three-crew station operations between Soyuz landings and launches.

This means a roughly 45 day slip for the Soyuz TMA-03M landing, from 16th May to 1st July, a roughly 5 day slip for the Soyuz TMA-04M landing, from 12th to 17th September, and no slip for the Soyuz TMA-05M landing, which will still occur as originally planned on 12th November.

Click here for ISS Articles: http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/tag/iss/

Other flight activities for early 2012:

With the first crew rotation of 2012 now via the Soyuz TMA-22 undocking and landing on 30th April and the Soyuz TMA-04M launch on 15th May, the next three months on station will be devoted to a spacewalk, and visits from Russian, European, and commercial cargo ships, all of which must be co-ordinated with each other to ensure no conflicts in the complex schedule.

The first item on the order of ISS flight events for the next few months is Russian Extra Vehicular Activity-30 (EVA-30) on 16th February.

During this spacewalk, the first of 2012, Russian cosmonauts Oleg Kononenko and Anatoly Shkaplerov will spend roughly six hours outside the Russian Segment (RS) of the ISS, preparing for the arrival of the Multipurpose Laboratory Module (MLM) “Nauka” in 2013.

The MLM will dock to the Service Module (SM) “Zvezda” Nadir docking port, where Docking Compartment-1 (DC-1) “Pirs” currently resides.

Due to this, DC-1 will need to be undocked and disposed of prior to MLM’s arrival, and so the two manually-operated Strela cranes currently attached to DC-1 must be relocated to elsewhere on the station in order to preserve them for future use.

Thus, during EVA-30, the Strela-1 crane will be relocated to the Mini Research Module-2 (MRM-2) “Poisk”, a task originally planned for last August’s Russian EVA-29.

Strela-2 will move to the Functional Cargo Block (FGB) “Zarya” during a later EVA. Other tasks for EVA-30 including installing debris shields on the SM, setting up external experiments, and, as a get ahead, transferring an EVA ladder from DC-1 to MRM-2.

Following EVA-30, the next big task for the ISS will be to receive the European Automated Transfer Vehicle-3 (ATV-3) cargo carrier.

Currently planned for launch atop an Ariane V from Kourou Space Center in French Guiana on 9th March, ATV-3 will dock to the ISS following a 10 day free flight, on 19th March.

ATV-3 is somewhat controlling the debut launch of the new European Vega rocket, currently planned for 13th February, by limiting the number of days that the Vega launch can scrub before it must be stood down until after ATV-3, due to the need to have enough time to reconfigure Kourou launch site assets to support the ATV-3 launch. ATV-3 cannot move to make way for Vega, as that would cause problems for the already jam-packed and highly complex ISS flight manifest.

ATV-3, which has been upgraded to carry more internal cargo than pervious ATVs, will be the first vehicle to dock at the SM Aft port since the Progress M-11M/43P spacecraft prior to STS-135 last June, since the failed Progress M-12M/44P was supposed to dock there following Progress M-11M’s departure in August. ATV-3 will remain at the ISS through to August 2012, during which time it will provide propulsive support for ISS attitude control, reboosts, and Debris Avoidance Maneuvers (DAMs).

Following the ATV-3 docking, and with the Progress M-15M/47P launch now accelerated from 25th April to 20th April, a full month of time will be free in the ISS schedule for what will likely be the most watched mission of the year – the inaugural visit of SpaceX’s Dragon capsule to the station.

SpaceX ongoing delays and potential launch date:

SpaceX’s Dragon capsule had at the start of the year been planned for launch on 7th February, on the now approved combined COTS-2/COTS-3 (C2/C3) demo mission.

However, ongoing delays, related mainly to software testing, integrated simulations, refinement of flight procedures, and closeout of various “open items” on the spacecraft and launch vehicle, have pushed the launch to the right.

The ISS is now fully ready to support Dragon, however, with the Enhanced Processor & Integrated Communications (EPIC) card installations and both the X2_R10 and X2_R11 software transitions now completed, the latter of which includes Mobile Servicing System (MSS) 7.1 software, which updates the MSS, of which the SSRMS is a part, to support Dragon robotics activities.

Officially, the target launch date for Dragon at this time is 20th March – the day after the planned ATV-3 docking, so as to avoid any conflicts with that vehicle.

However, this date is merely a placeholder with the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (CCAFS) Eastern Range, and at last week’s ISS status press briefing, NASA ISS Program Manager Mike Suffredini said that due to the volume of work still to be completed, an April launch date is more likely for SpaceX.

SpaceX has until late April to play with, since the Progress M-15M launch and docking is planned for 20th and 22nd April, respectively, and after that, the Soyuz TMA-22 undocking and landing on 30th April.

Following the TMA-22 undocking, ISS will be at three crew operations, which may preclude the Dragon berthing at the ISS due to the need to have two trained crewmembers aboard the station to perform the Dragon capture with the Space Station Remote Manipulator System (SSRMS).

It is not understood at this point whether ESA astronaut André Kuipers would be able to fulfil the role of a trained crewmember, along with NASA astronaut Don Pettit, but if not, the next time two trained US crewmembers would be aboard the station is 17th May, following the 15th May launch of Soyuz TMA-04M, carrying NASA astronaut Joe Acaba.

Following arrival of Soyuz TMA-04M, the ISS schedule is free through the rest of May and all of June, whereupon another Soyuz rotation will occur in early through mid-July, followed by Russian and Japanese resupply flights.

Flight activities for later in 2012:

Another vehicle to feel the fallout of the recent Soyuz problems is Japan’s H-II Transfer Vehicle-3 (HTV-3), which was previously scheduled to launch on 26th June, for a rendezvous with and berthing to the ISS on 1st July.

Since the Soyuz reshuffle placed the HTV-3 rendezvous and berthing on the same date as the Soyuz TMA-03M undocking, following which ISS will be at three-crew operations, that meant HTV-3′s arrival would cause conflict issues, and violate the flight rule to have two fully trained US crewmembers available to support capture operations, since only one US astronaut would be aboard the ISS following the Soyuz TMA-03M undocking (Joe Acaba).

Thus, HTV-3 now has to wait for Soyuz TMA-05M, carrying NASA astronaut Sunita Williams, to dock with the ISS on 17th July, prior to launching on what is now scheduled to be a late July or early August date.

The months of August and September will then be a very busy time on ISS, with the scheduled undocking of ATV-3 on 27th August, and the unberthing of HTV sometime in late August or early September.

During this time, Orbital’s Cygnus vehicle could also visit the ISS on its maiden flight, as much as ongong delays with launch site readiness mean that no firm date is set for that flight at this time.

Also during August, Russian EVA-31 will be performed, along with the recently added US EVA-18. This EVA had been scheduled for summer 2012 before, but was pushed back to 2013. However, a recent external hardware failure, namely the Main Bus Switching Unit-1 (MBSU-1) located on the S0 Truss, caused NASA managers to reconsider.

MBSU-1, which along with three other MBSUs distributes power around the station’s electrical system, started displaying erratic behaviour late last year, such as resets and loss of communication. MBSU-1 has now completely lost communications with the ISS, although it is still functioning and distributing power correctly.

It is clear, however, that MBSU-1 is slowly degrading, and could be on the verge of total failure. While source information shows that the ISS could tolerate a complete MBSU-1 failure via the crew installing internal jumpers to re-distribute power around the station, this would leave the ISS in what is a single fault tolerate situation, as a failure of another MBSU would require an emergency EVA to Remove & Replace (R&R) the failed MBSU.

Source information shows that MBSU-2 has previously displayed errors similar to those seen on MBSU-1, such as bit errors, and thus MBSU-2 is vulnerable to the same type of failure as MBSU-1, which would not be recoverable via jumper installation.

Due to this fact, NASA managers have decided to go ahead and R&R MBSU-1 this year, in order to reduce the risk of a complete failure leaving the ISS MBSUs single fault tolerant.

This means that, although EVA-18 will include an R&R of failed hardware, it is classed as a planned EVA, not an unplanned EVA – the best example of which is August 2010′s three epic EVAs to R&R the failed Loop B Pump Module (PM). Procedures for a contingency EVA do already exist however, should MBSU-1 fail prior to its scheduled R&R and thus require an immediate R&R.

EVA-18 will be significant since it will be the first US ISS spacewalk in the post-Shuttle era, an era which will see the ISS crew have to halt their research activities in order to deal with outside problems themselves, instead of leaving it to a visiting Shuttle crew as was done in the past.

Thus, NASA’s strategy of pre-positioning ample spare Orbital Replacement Units (ORUs) outside the ISS prior to the Shuttle’s retirement is already proving to be a good strategy, as source information shows that two spare MBSUs are currently available outside the ISS – both stored on External Stowage Platform-2 (ESP-2), with one having flown to the ISS on STS-116 in December 2006, and the other on STS-120 in October/November 2007.

Two spare MBSUs are also available on the ground, one of which is planned for launch on HTV-4 in July 2013, and the other planned for launch in 2017. Both of these MBSUs are not susceptible to the bit errors noticed on MBSUs 1 and 2.

NASA is currently in the process of reviewing specific EVA timelines, and source information shows that two main paths are being considered – one involving the R&R of MBSU-1 using just the two spacewalkers, and the other involving the Special Purpose Dextrous Manipulator (SPDM) “Dextre” doing some of the preparation tasks prior to the EVA, including retrieving the space MBSU from ESP-2 and positioning it near the EVA worksite, to be installed by the EVA crew (it is not possible for the SPDM to perform the entire R&R).

Without the use of the SPDM, a standard EVA timeline could accomplish the MBSU-1 R&R in 6 hours 30 minutes, around the standard time for an EVA. However, a streamlined timeline could accomplish the MBSU-1 R&R in only 4 hours 30 minutes, leaving around an additional 2 hours for some extra tasks outside the station. With prior assistance from the SPDM however, an additional 3 hours 30 minutes would be available for additional tasks.

Source information shows that the additional tasks that could be performed include those deferred from the single STS-135 EVA in July 2011, such as the FGB Power & Date Grapple Fixture (PDGF) 1553 cable install, FGB PDGF grounding wire inspections, and SSRMS Camera Light Pan/tilt Assembly (CLPA) R&R. Some of these tasks could also be conducted during US EVAs 19 and 20 however, which have now been brought forward to February 2013, for reasons unknown at this time.

Following US EVA-18, the remainder of 2012 will then see the usual traffic of Soyuz and Progress flights, along with possibly the first operational resupply flights of the Dragon and Cygnus vehicles under the Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) Program.

Overall, despite claims that the ISS was going to be slowing down in the post-Shuttle era, the station is in fact as busy as ever, playing host to a wide array of international and commercial Visiting Vehicles (VVs), as well as the usual heavy schedule of maintenance and research activities.

While delays in Russian and commercial vehicles continue to have an impact on the ISS, it is vital that both these systems demonstrate reliability this year, since both are now being heavily relied on to provide vital crew and cargo transportation to the ISS in the wake of the Shuttle’s retirement.

(Images: L2 Content, NASA, Roscosmos and Orbital)

(NSF and L2 are providing full transition level coverage, available no where else on the internet, from Orion and SLS to ISS and COTS/CRS/CCDEV, to European and Russian vehicles). 

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Aerojet Engine Development:

While Aerojet are already involved in a wide range of propulsive requirements for launch vehicles and spacecraft, work is already well under way for their effort to become the provider of the Next Generation Engine (NGE), a process started via the Air Force’s Request For Information (RFI) over a year ago.

The RFI noted it was seeking an Upper Stage engine utilizing modern design and manufacturing methods, while it would be expected that the new engine will demonstrate state-of-the-art operating margin and reliability and minimize life-cycle costs, with an aim of replacing the RL-10 – which is used in various forms with Atlas’ Centaur Upper Stage (RL-10A-3) and Delta IV’s Upper Stage (RL-10B-2).

Aerojet recently noted they had successfully completed a major milestone in the development of a ground demonstrator for the Next Generation Engine (NGE) program, announcing the completion of the Preliminary Design Review (PDR) of the turbopump assembly.

The engine under development – which is yet to receive a name – would not be restricted to just US Air Force/EELV use, according to Julie Van Kleeck, Aerojet Vice President, Space & Launch System speaking in an interview with NASASpaceflight.com.

“For now we are assuming the RL-10 engine requirements with additional consideration of the requirements put forth in the AF September 2010 RFI. (Next Generation Engine (NGE) Request for Information; Solicitation Number: SMC10-55; Agency: Department of the Air Force; Office: Air Force Space Command; Location: SMC – Space and Missile Systems Center).

“We do believe this engine can serve future civil as well as Air Force needs.”

Aerojet – who previously noted it has been decades since there has been an open engine competition in the United States – added they are unable to compare their new engine to an RL-10 derivative at this stage. However, they are confident they can present their NGE as a major step forward.

“We don’t know many specifics about RL-10 derivatives since little has been made public. Aerojet believes that our offering for NGE will make major improvements over the current RL-10 in cost and reliability and have equal or greater performance depending on configuration,” added Ms Van Kleeck.

The Californian-based company are involved in a number of future engine projects, not least the advanced booster for the Space Launch System (SLS), but also in the field of environmentally “green” engines.

With experience in working with Hydroxylammonium nitrate or hydroxylamine nitrate (HAN) powered engines for uncrewed spacecraft, Aerojet noted they are also working on a nitrous-ethanol bipropellant system for Human Space Flight applications.

“While Aerojet has been developing HAN-based monopropellants for a wide range of applications since 1990, Human Spaceflight is not a current focus for this effort. For HSF, our current green propulsion focus is a nitrous-ethanol bipropellant system,” noted Ms Van Kleeck.

It has been publicly known that HAN is being developed as a potential propellant for launch vehicles, both in the solid form as a solid propellant oxidizer, and in the aqueous solution in monopropellant rockets.

According to technical papers – such as those associated with the US Department of Energy – it is typically bonded with glycidyl azide polymer (GAP), Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB), or carboxy-terminated polybutadiene (CTPB). The catalyst is a noble metal, similar to the other monopropellants that use silver or palladium.

“For the HAN-monopropellant systems we are currently focused on robotic spacecraft and defense applications,” Ms Van Kleeck continued. “Aerojet has successfully tested HAN thrusters from 0.2 lbf up to 150 lbf and has found no limitations to developing even higher thrust engines. When developing new, green propellants, one needs to consider both environmental and safety issues.

“For HSF, if green monopropellants become attractive, Aerojet believes that HAN is the leading green monopropellant candidate if you consider all of the safety and handling issues.”

As aforementioned, Ms Van Kleeck noted that Aerojet place a large amount of consideration on both the environmental and safety elements of their advanced propellants, not least their impact on humans, but also for the atmosphere of Mars.

“Aerojet has developed both monopropellant and bipropellant liquid rocket engines that utilize environmentally friendly propellants. Our monopropellant efforts include HAN based engines and Nitrous Oxide based engines. In the bipropellant arena, we have developed Nitrous-Ethanol, LOX/Methane, LOX/Hydrogen and LOX/Ethanol engines,” added Ms Van Kleeck.

“For interplanetary missions to Mars, NASA has chosen Aerojet’s monopropellant hydrazine thrusters for both cruise and landing for all Mars landers to date for the simple reason that hydrazine (N2H4) does not contain carbon.

“For all advanced propellants, both environmental and safety considerations are very important, and our selections are based on a balance of both of these critical factors. Insofar as toxicity to humans, we have done extensive work on our selected propellants and have found that they meet our requirements.

“Just as important, extensive testing has shown that our propellants are the safest to handle and use in typical test and operational settings.”

(Images: Via NASA, ACS.org and Aerojet.)

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SLS Waiting For Primary Roles:

As outlined in previous articles on this site, NASA managers are continuing with their efforts to refine the Design Reference Mission (DRM) roadmap for the Agency’s new flagship launch vehicle.

While that process continues, clues to the roadmap’s foundations can be found in NASA documentation, such as the SLS Concept Of Operations (Con Ops) presentation (available on L2 – Link to Presentation), which provides a detailed overview of the large number of the DRMs under consideration.

*Click here for the list of SLS Con Ops Articles*

As to when the process will be complete, a lot will depend on information relating to budget support for NASA, specifically the SLS and Orion programs.

In turn, SLS managers need to present a roadmap and a schedule which is far removed from the “worst case” scenario, one which sees SLS involved in a widely-spaced opening salvo of missions, before increasing to a flight rate of just one mission per year in the 2020s – an unacceptably low flight rate in most people’s eyes.

NASA managers are fully aware of this, with the SLS team already looking as far ahead as FY14 in their recent manifest meeting, based mainly around the previously reported wish to halve the gap between SLS-1 in 2017 and SLS-2.

With the “worst case” manifest showing SLS-2 would launch in 2021 – otherwise known as the first crewed mission for SLS and Orion – it is understood that if this mission cannot be advanced to 2019, an alternative option would be to launch SLS on a cargo mission in that year.

It has not yet been determined what type of cargo would fly on the SLS – a Block I (70mt) HLV – in such a schedule scenario.

Other Roles For SLS:

SLS’ design was technically selected ahead of knowing what specific missions it would be conducting. While it has been argued the payloads should determine the design of the launch vehicle, its upmass capabilities and fairing size options at least provide some guidelines to its future passengers.

As noted in the SLS Con Ops presentation, flexibility is inherent with a vehicle that will debut as a 70mt deriviative, prior to growing to 100mt (Block IA) and later to a 130mt (Block II). The aim is to evolve the SLS to its full capability in time for potential missions to Mars.

“The SLS changes the paradigm of what can be launched, because its launch performance is far greater than that of any current vehicle. In addition, its dramatically larger launch fairing enables launching large, multi-element systems, greater science instrument mass fraction, larger electrical power supplies, and more mass for shielding and lower-complexity engineering solutions,” noted the SLS Con Ops presentation.

“This translates into an earlier return on science, a reduction in mission times, and greater flexibility for extended science missions.”

Notable additions to the DRM section of the presentation are roles for the SLS which are separate from those which involve NASA’s future exploration aspirations.

Secondary Payloads – SpaceX and SLS:

One of these additional roles relates to “Secondary Payloads” – in other words, spacecraft – usually much smaller than the primary passenger – that could potentially hitch a ride uphill with the SLS.

The subject of secondary payloads became an important subject for SpaceX recently, as the Californian company noted its agreement to launch 18 ORBCOMM Generation 2 (OG2) satellites would be carried out – as secondary payloads – during Falcon 9 launches.

Originally, the delivery of the second-generation satellites into Low Earth Orbit (LEO) was set to be carried out on the Falcon 1e launch vehicle.

SpaceX noted the switch to Falcon 9 was made to further maximize the cost-effectiveness of their COTS/CRS missions, by including these additional payloads as passengers on the Falcon 9′s second stage, allowing them to be deployed after the Dragon spacecraft separates from the launch vehicle.

When SpaceX were asked if there was still a future role for Falcon 1/1e following this switch, the company’s communications director Kirstin Brost Grantham told NASASpaceflight.com: “Current plans are for small payloads to be served by flights on the Falcon 9, utilizing excess capacity. This is a very cost effective solution for small satellite launch needs.”

With a number of the OG2 satellites set to fly with the next Falcon 9 – the combined COTS 2 and 3 Demo mission – NASA teams used their experienced Monte Carlo analysis methods to review the deployment of the satellites, so as to ensure they did not hold an impact risk to the International Space Station (ISS).

For SLS, the Con Ops presentation noted the potential use of an Encapsulated Secondary Payload Adapter (ESPA) ring to allow for additional passengers to ride with the monster rocket.

“The SLS will pursue opportunities to fly secondary payloads in conjunction with primary missions. These services can be provided by the Science Mission Directorate (SMD), allowing deployment of these payloads along the SLS trajectory. An ESPA ring may be flown to accommodate this class of payloads.”

For SLS/HLV Articles, click here: http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/tag/hlv/

SLS DoD Missions:

In a reminder of the Space Shuttle’s past, SLS managers are also eyeing up the possibility of launching military payloads on the HLV.

Currently, most DoD spacecraft are launch by EELVs (Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle), such as the Atlas V or the Delta IV vehicles, under the control of the United Launch Alliance (ULA). However, for a period during the early years of the Shuttle’s lifetime, the orbiter’s role with classified DoD payloads was commonplace.

During the Shuttle era, the orbiters enjoyed both “dedicated” DoD missions – beginning with Columbia’s STS-4 flight – and “civilian” missions that carried, or deployed, DoD payloads. The last dedicated DoD mission was in 1992 with Discovery during STS-53, while the last “civilian” mission with a DoD payload was in 2000, during Endeavour’s STS-99′s mission.

SLS managers believe NASA’s previous experience with DoD missions opens up the potential to carry out SLS launches with military payloads.

“Other missions which may utilize the SLS capability are launches for other Government agencies, like the DoD and any Government agencies with classified missions,” the Con Ops presentation noted.

“DoD mission support will also be available on the SLS, which will be available to partner with DoD and international partners for them to use SLS launch capabilities and opportunities. Classified missions have previously been supported through the MCC (Mission Control Center) at JSC (Johnson Space Center).

“This capability, along with the large payload capacity of SLS, allows for a wide range of DoD payload development and flight that was not previously available within the United States.”

The presentation also claimed the SLS’ large payload capability may be attractive to some commercial partners, citing Bigelow Space Station modules as one example.

It is likely the SLS team will wait until they know the outcome of the exploration roadmap evaluations before pursuing the potential of launching additional payloads.

(Images: Via L2 content, driven by L2′s SLS specific L2 section, which includes, presentations, videos, graphics and internal updates on the SLS and HLV, available on no other site. Other images via NASA and SpaceX.)

(L2 is – as it has been for the past several years – providing full exclusive SLS coverage, available no where else on the internet. To join L2, click here: http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/l2/)

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Launch Abort System:

Historically, Launch Abort Systems (LAS) – or Launch Escape System (LES) – have appeared as towers, attached on top of the crew capsule, ready to “pull” the capsule – and its crew – away from a failing vehicle, be it at the launch pad, or during early ascent.

In the event of a nominal launch, the tower would be jettisoned midway through the ascent to orbit – at a point in time where a major issue would result in the capsule simply separating away for an abort – usually resulting in a splashdown.

These LAS towers can be seen on the early crewed launch vehicles, having first been tested in 1960 – when the “Beach Abort” practiced the abort technique on the first production Mercury capsule at NASA’s test facility at Wallops Island.

While Gemini used ejection seats, the towers became part of the Mercury and Apollo programs, even earning a place in Hollywood movies, such as when Tom Hanks – playing Commander Jim Lovell in the movie Apollo 13 – reached forward to manually jettison the tower during second stage flight during the film’s launch scene.

The early flights of the Space Shuttle only employed the ejection seat capability, as much as it was hinted using such a system – only available for a limited time during first stage ascent – would have provided the escaping astronauts very little chance of survival. The Shuttle mainly relied on abort scenarios involving the return of the crew with the orbiter.

Thanks to the strict safety record of crewed launch vehicles, the use of the LAS has only been called for once during an actual emergency, with the Russians.

Another abort – Soyuz 18A – aborted in flight, resulting in the crew landing safely near the Chinese border – however, it is believed this event came after LAS jettison, with the abort carried out by the Soyuz engines.

The clear use of the LAS during an abort event is a famous one – mainly due to the footage finding a large audience on youtube – as the crew of Soyuz T-10-1 underwent a pad abort, just seconds before their failing vehicle exploded on the launch pad.

The video shows a line of the Soviet top brass witnessing the dramatic abort, acknowledged only by one General calmly adjusting his collar.

It was reported that the crew landed safely, just four miles away.

LAS For Orion:

For the defunct Vision for Space Exploration (VSE) – a direct fallout of the Columbia disaster – crew safety for the next launch system was paramount, as NASA reverted back to a capsule design, with a full Launch Abort System.

In 2007, a major trade of several LAS concepts were evaluated by NASA managers, namely the Multiple External (x4) Service Module (SM) Abort Motor concept, the Crew Module Strap On Motors (x4) concept, and the In-Line Tandem Tractor (Tower) concept – the latter of which was baselined into Ares I/Orion design.

The trades request the preferred design should ensure the risk of losing the crew in an abort scenario would be no greater than 1:10, noting such a system is no guarantee for crew survival during an emergency.

The winning concept – the Tandem Tractor (Tower) LAS design – comprised of a Nose Cone, Attitude Control Motor (Eight Nozzles), Canard Section (Stowed Configuration), Jettison Motor (Four Aft, Scarfed Nozzles), Interstage, Abort Motor (Four Exposed, Reverse Flow Nozzles), Adapter Cone, and Boost Protective Cover (BPC).

The primary role of such a system is to save the crew during the ‘three stages’ of an abort, the first involving the firing of the spacecraft – in this case Orion – away from a failing vehicle on the launch pad to a safe distance, before deploying the parachutes on the Orion, for a landing in the Atlantic ocean within a 3450 ft radius due east of the launch pad.

The second stage of an abort is noted as “mid altitude” – which has a different characteristic when compared to pad abort. This stage of abort works for up to 150,000 ft, involving the LAS remaining on the vehicle after firing the Orion safely away from the failing vehicle until the point of drogue chute deployment, which becomes necessary at that altitude.

The final stage of abort, which would still require the LAS, is at an altitude of between 150,000 ft and 300,000 ft – the latter being the point the LAS would be jettisoned on a nominal flight. After being pulled away from the launch vehicle, Orion would revert to a flight profile similar to that used during the end of a normal mission.

During the evaluations, some engineers called for changes to the system. However, due to the mighty struggles of the time – involving Ares I’s mass to orbit ability, or lack thereof – the main focus turned to using the LAS, in the event of a successful launch, to still perform a firing, in order to assist Orion’s ride uphill.

“LAS Abort Impulse used for Ascent Assist: Theoretically can increase mass to orbit by 1000 lb. However, additional tension loading on the Command Module requires additional structure that leads to overall decrease in mass to orbit,” noted an extensive NASA presentation (acquired by L2 – Link to Document).

Managers also evaluated the use of nozzle inserts in the LAS motors, which would reduce the thrust and thus structural loadings on the vehicle. This option would mitigate any concerns of Command Module (CM) mass penalties.

‘An Alternate Option Using Nozzle Inserts: Reduces Abort Motor Thrust, Increases burn time. Relieves Command Module Compressive load – no tension loads. Increases the Payload Mass-to-Orbit by ~650 lb,’ added the presentation.

This option weakened as evaluations progressed, with the final note on such a use for the LAS pointing to only a 400lb mass increase.

This system has enjoyed one test launch, lofting a boilerplate Orion into the skies of White Sands, New Mexico, durng the successful PA-1 (Pad Abort 1) test in 2010.

MLAS:

While abort motors on the Service Module lost out during the trade studies, a new concept came forward called the Max Abort Launch System – or MLAS (named after Maxime (Max) Faget).

Although it was never publicly admitted, this system was often mentioned by sources as a potential solution towards a growing movement associated with cancelling Ares I and human rating the Ares V, as the Constellation Program (CxP) began to falter.

It also had the backing of then-NASA administrator Mike Griffin, which would not have come as a surprise, given MLAS was an evolution of two of the original three LAS concepts studied by Constellation, one of which made the LAS trade study in 2007 via a rather amusing hand-drawn sketch, created in 2006.

The MLAS concept combined the boost protection cover of the service module mounted escape system with the command module mounted motors, in turn reducing the overall height of the vehicle – something desired by the Ares V HR advocates, who were worried about being able to stack and rollout the vehicle – with a LAS tower – under the height restrictions of the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) doors.

The MLAS utilized a ‘bullet’ boost protection cover over the capsule to house four Mk 70 Terrier solid motors separation motors – as opposed to locating them on a tower above the capsule.

Two orientation parachutes are attached to the top of the fairing to re-orient the vehicle, with the blunt heat shield to aid in fairing separation.

The design resulted in the aborting vehicle re-orienting immediately after abort motor cut off during a pad abort, but would fly with its nose “into the wind” on a mid-altitude abort. The orientation parachutes would then activate quickly before the fairing separation.

In the event of a high altitude abort, the fairing would come off immediately, in order to allow the Command Module Reaction Control System (RCS) to stabilize the vehicle for entry.

The design of MLAS changed several times during its development, gaining fins for stability during later cycles, becoming more in line with another hand drawn sketch.

This  time the artist was former Constellation head Scott “Doc” Horowitz – as seen in the second of two MLAS presentations acquired by L2 (Link to Presentations) – over a year after Mr Griffin’s conceptual design.

The final version of the MLAS flight test vehicle weighed in at over 45,000 lbs and was over 33 feet tall – and this vehicle actually got to fly for real, after being shipped to Wallops for its one and only hop off the ground.

The pad abort test proper began seven seconds after burnout of some specially attached solid motors, as the vehicle rose into the Virginia morning sky at 6:25am local time on July 8, 2009.

Video of the launch showed a perfect test, as the vehicle rose on a stable flight path, before reorientation and further stabilization, followed by crew module simulator separation from the MLAS fairing, and parachute recovery of the crew module simulator.

Other tests were planned for MLAS, including a high altitude abort – which will involve the fairing being released immediately after abort is called, in order to allow the Command Module Reaction Control System (RCS) to stabilize the vehicle for entry. However, the program was put on the backburner, as the Constellation Program found itself cancelled.

At this time, the Space Launch System (SLS) will launch Orion with the previously chosen Line Tandem Tractor (Tower) design as its LAS.

SpaceX LAS:

Despite being late to the game, when compared to the Constellation development path, SpaceX still came up with an arguably superior system for use with their Dragon spacecraft, a system not only fully integrated into the body of the spacecraft, but one that also holds future uses, through to those that aren’t even related to launch abort.

The first major difference relates to the traditional use of solid propellant, mainly because of the speed it can ignite and reach full thrust – something highly desirable when moving human lives away from a failing rocket.

However, Dragon sports a series of eight liquid SuperDraco engines, built into the side walls of the Dragon spacecraft, capable of producing up to 120,000 pounds of axial thrust to drive the Dragon away from its failing launch vehicle.

SpaceX are deep into developing the engines – just nine months after their Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) contract noted the LAS is required – with the latest test fire taking place at the company’s Rocket Development Facility in McGregor, Texas.

Referencing back to the benefit of solid motor abort systems, SpaceX’s SuperDraco produced full thrust within approximately 100 milliseconds of the ignition command. It also fired for five seconds, which is the same amount of time the engines would burn during an emergency abort.

Advantages of the SuperDraco liquid thruster include how the engine can be put through a series of throttling ranges, in turn allowing for redundancy, with SpaceX claiming they could lose one of the eight abort engines and still recover the vehicle and crew successfully. The engines can also be restarted multiple times.

Another advantage is the fact it’s not a tower. As noted previously, the LAS tower normally requires jettison shortly after first stage flight. Any failure of this key sequence of ascent would end the mission, given the flight profile wouldn’t be designed for carrying the LAS along for the ride.

Because the system is integrated into the Dragon itself – as opposed to departing the spacecraft during jettison – the spacecraft can technically abort within much longer periods than the tower version. With Dragon returning with the engines on board, they can also be reused on future launches.

There is also a large amount of commonality between the 18 maneuvering engines built into Dragon and the SuperDraco LAS engines – bar the fact the SuperDraco engines would burn through propellant 200 times faster.

The biggest long-term advantage of this system is related to the potential use of the engines to land Dragon back on land propulsively, as seen via SpaceX’s Reusable Falcon 9 concept, which returns all of the launch vehicle and spacecraft hardware to the ground for reuse.

Parachutes would still be onboard the Dragon, for a contingency event resulting in problems with the SuperDracos, allowing the spacecraft to land on water, as it is currently designed to do.

However, Earth isn’t the only landing destination for Dragon, with SpaceX holding ambitions of landing on the Moon and more notably Mars. Nicknamed “Red Dragon” – SpaceX have made no secret about heading to Mars, even publishing a graphic of their spacecraft touching down on the Red Planet.

Such a mission is deep into the future, although Elon Musk, SpaceX CEO and Chief Technology Officer, included the full range of use for the SuperDraco’s when announcing his pleasure with the recent test firings.

“SuperDraco engines represent the best of cutting edge technology,” Mr Musk noted. “These engines will power a revolutionary launch escape system that will make Dragon the safest spacecraft in history and enable it to land propulsively on Earth or another planet with pinpoint accuracy.”

NASA’s own Mars plans are a mix of old mission outlines and revamped videos, but do show they also have propulsive landing ambitions – in tandem with large parachutes – with the latest conceptual Mars mission videos showing massive cargo landers and crew habitats, with the crew riding down to the surface on board the hab lander, touching down under large amounts of propulsive power.

Such missions are likely to be in the 2030s at the earliest, with the main focus for the entire US space program being the urgency to regain their own domestic crew launch capability, following the retirement of the Space Shuttle.

The successful development path of the SuperDraco engine has literally pushed SpaceX one step further down the road for NASA and the United States to achieve independence from purchasing seats on the Russian Soyuz – a vehicle which still uses the same tower LAS that caused one Soviet General to check if his collar was straight.

(Images via NASA, SpaceX, and L2 content)

(With the shuttle fleet retired, NSF and L2 are providing full transition level coverage, available no where else on the internet, from Orion and SLS to ISS and COTS/CRS/CCDEV, to European and Russian vehicles. 

(Click here: http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/l2/ - to view how you can access the best space flight content on the entire internet)

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Endeavour back home in OPF-2; final KSC work begins on the baby orbiter:

Since being relegated to VAB (Vehicle Assembly Building) HB-4 (High Bay 4) in August 2011 to allow sister Discovery access to OPF-1 to complete her retirement and decommissioning flow, Space Shuttle orbiter Endeavour has sat in the VAB to be viewed by spectators and visitors to the Kennedy Space Center – a role she will soon adopt full-time later this year.

After nearly six months in the VAB – a stay in storage longer then numerous of her OPF processing flows for her 25 flights – Endeavour’s engineers flocked to her side this morning for final preparations for her move back to her home in OPF-2.

With Endeavour (OV-105) safely cocooned inside the protective and processing structures of OPF-2, final decommission work will now proceed on the baby of NASA’s Shuttle fleet.

Serving her country and the world space community proud for just one-fourth of her total design life, Endeavour will now spend the next six months (at least) inside OPF-2 – the OPF that became her very own processing facility in 2003, following the tragic loss of her sister Columbia (OV-102) and her valiant international crew of seven men and women – the 9 year anniversary of which we remember today.

After vacating OPF-2 on 28 February 2011 for mating with her ET and SRB stack for her final voyage, Endeavour was taken into OPF-1 on 1 June 2011, following her successful return from the STS-134 mission.

In OPF-1, Endeavour was quickly deserviced from STS-134 flight status before being taken into full-up decommissioning operations – which saw her lose her three SSMEs (Space Shuttle Main Engines), OMS pods, FRCS (Forward Reaction Control System) pod, SRMS (Shuttle Remote Manipulator System) arm, and numerous pieces of internal equipment.

Stripped down and exposed, Endeavour was rolled out of OPF-1 on 11 August 2011 to make room for sister Discovery.

Since then, Endeavour has been stored in the VAB, with no work being performed on her during her stay in the VAB.

Following the removal of Space Shuttle orbiter Atlantis (OV-104) from OPF-2 on Friday, 20 January 2012 to make room for Endeavour, technicians in Endeavour’s home OPF have been busy performing Open Bay Work – scheduled maintenance and upkeep work on the OPF-2 systems that cannot be undertaken with a Shuttle orbiter present in the bay.

With that standard Open Bay Work complete, Endeavour will now take center stage in the OPF as technicians complete all open work for her eventual centerpiece display at the California Science Center in Los Angeles, California.

In addition to the installation of three Replica Shuttle Main Engines (RSMEs) into her aft, Endeavour will also receive her now-cosmetic-only OMS Pods and FRCS pod before having portions of her MPS (Main Propulsion System) removed for the SLS rocket and related program.

Significant work will also be conducted in the space underneath her Payload Bay as final efforts to completely safe Endeavour for public display are carried out.

Endeavour, however, will not receive her SRMS arm back. That arm, which enabled many of her accomplishments throughout her life, will be given to a Canadian museum – still to be determined – in acknowledgement of and thanks for Canada’s support for the Shuttle Program since its conception in the 1970s.

Like Discovery before her, Endeavour’s payload bay doors will then be closed for the final time and power cut to historic vehicle for the final time.

With power already terminated to former fleet leader Discovery and middle child Atlantis, Endeavour – despite having flown the penultimate flight of the Shuttle Program – will be the final surviving Shuttle orbiter once hooked back up to OPF power this week.

The most recent information indicates the Endeavour will be powered through mid-March, though with all T&R (Transition and Retirement) flow schedules in flux and under a certain degree of pressure to be finished quickly, it’s possible Endeavour could be powered down for the final time earlier than mid-March.

Click here for T&R Articles: http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/tag/T&R/

After this milestone is passed, she will then be fitted with a tailcone assembly to prepare her for her ferry flight across the country to the CSC.

While timelines are currently in flux because of the added work of having to remove MPS components from all three orbiters – work that has not yet begun on Endeavour or her sister Atlantis, KSC Orbiter T&R Manager Stephanie Stilson revealed in an interview with NASASpaceflight.com’s Philip Sloss that KSC is currently targeting a mid-September, 2012 ferry flight for Endeavour, as much as this has since slipped to the October timeframe.

The double switch - Atlantis to take Endeavour place in VAB HB4:

With Endeavour safely in her OPF, Shuttle orbiter Atlantis (OV-104) has now taken up residence in VAB HB4, which involved her being wheeled out of the VAB transfer aisle and around the side of the building to the HB4 entrance – a move which was delayed until next week, before being pushed back up to Thursday and completed in the afternoon.

This now become Atlantis’s temporary home for February and most of March while her big sister Discovery completes her final KSC processing milestones in OPF-1.

However, Atlantis’s stay in the VAB will not be as solitary as Endeavour’s proved.

Unlike Endeavour, which saw now work performed on her during her VAB vacation, Atlantis will undergo the beginnings of her MPS tear down and removal while in the VAB.

While timelines are not solidified yet based on ongoing MPS tear down and removal work on Discovery in OPF-1, Atlantis is expected to remain in VAB HB4 until mid- to late-March 2012.

At this time, once all work is terminated on Discovery, the veteran flyer will be removed from OPF-1 and rolled over to the VAB for her last few weeks at her Kennedy home – a place she has called home since 1983.

After OPF-1 is vacated, Atlantis will be wheeled into the processing facility for her final T&R work.

In mid-April, Discovery will be rolled on her wheels from the VAB, past her two sisters, and out to Shuttle Landing Facility where she will be picked up by the Mate-Demate Device and her wheels retracted up into her belly.

Discovery will then be mated to the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft and flown up the eastern seaboard of the United States to Washington, D.C. and the Smithsonian’s National Air and Space Museum on April 17, 2012 – 31 years 5 days after Columbia roared off Launch Pad 39A to begin this historic program.

To read about the orbiters -  from birth, processing, every single mission, through to retirement, click here for the links:
http://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?topic=25837.0

(Images: Via NASA and L2 content – And special photography provided by Philip Sloss, NASASpaceflight.com and Larry Sullivan, MaxQ/NASASpaceflight.com – many thousands of super hi-res image stock available on L2′s new Photo Section)

(L2 and NSF are continuing to follow the orbiters through their transitional period. To join L2, click here: http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/l2/)

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NASA’s Remembrance:

This time of year serves to remind the human race that there is nothing routine about space flight, with three tragic anniversaries – Apollo 1, Challenger, and Columbia – all falling within five calendar days of each other early into each new year.

While the accidents, their causes, and the drive to mitigate repeat disasters are all well documented, the reminder – marked by NASA’s Day of Remembrance on the last Thursday of each January – serves to remind the current space program workforce that they have a job to do: to ensure no more names are added to the list of the fallen astronaut heroes.

KSC Director Bob Cabana knows what it’s like to put his life on the line for a mission into space. The retired USMC Colonel flew on four Space Shuttle missions and personally knew some of the lost heroes. He also was in charge of the spaceport that witnessed the final launches of the three surviving orbiters, each of which returned their crews home safely.

“Each year as I pause on our Day of Remembrance to honor those who made the ultimate sacrifice in our quest to explore space, I dedicate myself to ensuring that I do my very best to help prevent the loss of another life, whether as a crew member or in the line of duty supporting America’s space program,” noted Director Cabana in an address to the workforce.

“The business we are in is very demanding and terribly unforgiving of any mistakes we make.

“After laying the wreath, I took time to read the names on the mirror. They were some of my closest friends. They trusted us to do our best to protect them and keep them safe; they left loved ones behind who will always have an empty space that they once filled.”

KSC is currently transitioning to launch humans into space once again. As much as the new vehicles – ranging from commercial spaceships to NASA’s Orion capsule via the Space Launch System (SLS) - will be deemed “safer” than the Space Shuttle, it is unlikely the word “safe” will be taken for granted for decades to come, at least not when it involves sending crews uphill, riding on top of an explosion.

While the reminders this time of year are painful, the lessons from the three major disasters serve as motivation to ensure no more mistakes, to bring each crew back home safely and avoid another disaster which may result in the end of NASA in this risk adverse era.

“As we transition to a new future of commercial space operations and exploration beyond Earth, we cannot forget the lessons of our past,” added Director Cabana.

“They must be captured and passed on to ensure we do not repeat the same mistakes; that we do not take for granted our ability to launch humans into orbit; that just because we escaped harm in the past, it is no justification for success in the future; and that we have no hesitancy to share our concerns with anyone above or below us in the chain of command when it comes to the processing of critical space hardware that impacts the lives of our crew members, coworkers, and ourselves.

“We do amazing things at KSC, and we will continue to excel in the future because we have a culture of trust and integrity that binds us together. Let’s not lose that. Let’s not add any more names to the mirror. Let’s continue to do our best to ensure the health and safety of our crews and everyone else who works here at KSC.

“Thank you for your dedication to NASA, to KSC, and to human space exploration.”

Columbia’s loss remains the freshest in our minds. The beloved flagship which pioneered the Space Shuttle Program earned high praise from veteran commander John Young for her debut mission in 1981 and again from her inaugural pilot Bob Crippen who delivered a highly emotional tribute to Columbia during STS-107′s memorial speech – an amazing human tribute to a machine, one which is unlikely to be surpassed.
 
To vast amounts of people, both those who worked with the orbiters and those which followed their missions, the orbiters were living machines, almost differently sentient via their own personalities and quirks driven by a willingness to fight against the laws of physics to protect their crews.

Columbia had won that battle 27 times previous, before being mortally wounded during STS-107′s launch – a wound that sealed her fate during reentry 16 days later. Despite the gaping wound in her left wing, Columbia fought to the last during those final moments nine years ago today, as recognized by one of her engineers.
 
“Columbia’s lasting memorial in my eyes was her bravery that often gets over-looked,” noted one United Space Alliance engineer assigned to Columbia and who asked not to be named. “It was like she knew. I know that may sound strange – given she’s a machine, but I can’t – no matter how many times I look at the data – work out how she stayed mainly in one piece for so long, with her left wing terribly mis-shaped.
 
“Even with what we believe was – and I pray – an unconscious crew, and with her structure collapsing all around her, she still made multiple RCS (Reaction Control System) firings and rudder movements, fighting all the way to try and correct the drag. She should have been pulled over before she finally broke up, but she fought back, again and again.
 
“When I first got to see the data, I cried my eyes out. She was so brave to the end – I’m so proud of her and I’ll never forget her.”

Nine years later, Columbia continues to remind KSC’s current workforce of the need to work toward ensuring their future vehicles are in the best possible state for successfully launching and returning crews. Her remains continue to be held in a special room inside the very Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) she and her surviving sisters were processed in for their missions.

However, Columbia’s AND Challenger’s spirits remain in space – and while it may take a stretch of the imagination, their memories were honored as they watched over each one of their three sisters as Discovery, Endeavour, and Atlantis each enjoyed their victory laps around the planet one final time before descending into the atmosphere to conclude their service lives with a successful reentry and landing.

Sadly, the future which Columbia strived to create is currently less than desirable. As the U.S. Space Agency struggles to find a proper sense of direction, the future of NASA and humanity’s crewed exploration of space remains locked in PowerPoints and developmental contracts.

While political bickering continues over how to budget the future, its impact on the relatively small percentage of funding for what remains an admired space program threatens to disrespect the very heroes honored at this time of year.

Such frustrations were brilliantly captured in an article written by former SSP manager Wayne Hale.

“Do you think that they (the fallen astronauts) would be proud of their country which can no longer send humans into space? Do you think they would be proud of their space agency which has no coherent plan to continue with exploration?” Mr. Hale wrote in on his site.

“Do you think that they would be proud of their government which has fallen into bickering so badly that even the half of 1 percent of the federal budget that used to enable the future has been significantly reduced?  Or do you think that they would be proud of a commercial sector that is long on PR and short on delivering new commercial spacecraft?”
 
A proud nation such as the United States needs to honor its heroes and provide the inspiration of the next generation to step up to the plate to become part of the legacy and push forward humanity’s future in space.

*Discuss this article here*

To read about the orbiters -  from birth, processing, every single mission, through to retirement, click here for the links:
http://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?topic=25837.0

(Images: NASA, L2, Associated Press).

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Exploration Gateway:

With a return to the Moon’s surface returning to the table mid-way through 2011, during NASA evaluations into the new exploration plan, the concept of building a Gateway Platform at the International Space Station (ISS) and hosting it at a Lagrange point has become a large item of interest – not least since the Global Exploration Workshop last November.

Using the Gateway approach – the meeting concluded – utilizes “Near term focus on guiding capabilities, technologies and leveraging ISS,” prior to expanding to “Long term focus (on) Discovery Driven – and Enhanced by – Emerging Technologies.”

While the opening two missions of the Space Launch System (SLS) and Orion (Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle) are currently manifested for trips around the Moon, the bulk of the schedule for the 2020s remains undefined, bar indicators that the roadmap would include missions to Near Earth Asteroids (NEA) and eventually Mars.

A Gateway would provide numerous supporting elements to a wide-ranging roadmap, not least an initial target of the Moon’s surface, but also via the potential for international collaboration, as overviewed in documentation into a crewed return to the moon – part of an ambitious plan put forward under the Boeing banner.

Such a deep space platform would be located at Earth-Moon Lagrange (EML) point 1 or 2, after being built from pre-launched hardware, providing the host station for a Lunar Lander (potentially reusable) – which would also be launched by the SLS.

The Gateway would first be constructed at the ISS, mainly using the Node 4/DHS (Docking Hub System), an orbiter external airlock, an MPLM (Multi-Purpose Logistics Module) habitat module, and an international module.

Once constructed, a space tug – powered either by solar electric or chemical propulsion – would be utilized to raise the platform to the EML point.

Such a proposal claims to have the platform ready for the arrival of crewed missions via the SLS by 2022.

While questions remain on the schedule of SLS’ availability, a potential solution to some of the challenges of enabling a space platform in the first place have been forwarded by Aerojet, promoting their current Solar Electric Propulsion technology – the same technology which enjoyed a staring role in the rescue of the Advanced Extremely High Frequency satellite (AEHF-1).

Despite a nominal launch atop of an Atlas V – incidentally aided by three of Aerojet’s strap on solid rocket boosters – in August, 2010, a failure of the satellite’s subsystem resulted in the AEHF-1′s hydrazine-fueled liquid apogee engine (LAE) failing to carry out the required burns to place it correctly into Geostationary Orbit.

Thanks to some clever work via the satellite’s United States Air Force controllers and AEHF-1 teams, the $2 billion bird was saved via the ingenious use of the two smaller engines – namely the hydrazine-fueled Reaction Engine Assemblies (REAs) and later by the xenon-fueled Hall Current Thrusters (HCTs) – despite their primary role being one of positional stability on orbit.

The HCT thrusters – small motors that use electricity and xenon gas as propellant – do not have a large thrust level, but sport some amazing stamina, allowing them to fire over and over again for thousands of times.

While these motors can look forward to providing positional stability for upcoming satellites, along with long-distance trips with deep space spacecraft – a role Aerojet’s electric propulsion has successfully carried out on a huge range of spacecraft (a large amount remain operational today – click image for larger graphic) - a potential marriage between SEP and the Exploration Gateway plan has been promoted by the Californian company.

“We believe that Aerojet’s current Solar Electric Propulsion technology, such as that used to rescue AEHF, is immediately applicable to a key role in Human Space,” noted Julie Van Kleeck, Aerojet Vice President, Space & Launch System in an interview with NASASpaceflight.com.

“For example, a 25-40 kW SEP vehicle using current technology can pre-position a human-tended habitat at L-2 to support initial Orion missions. This approach would provide an immediate deep space destination for astronauts, and L-2 is an excellent way-station to the rest of the solar system.”

Playing to one of SEP’s strengths, such a vehicle would be relatively low in mass – when compared to its liquid propellant counterparts – aiding the launch vehicle used to loft such a vehicle en-route to its in-space role, while reducing the need for numerous refueling stations to assist thirsty spacecraft – otherwise known as propellant depots.

“In addition to delivering habitat modules to L-2, this 25-40 kW SEP vehicle enables an affordable and sustainable logistics transportation system for an L2 human outpost,” added Ms Van Kleeck. “Additionally this same vehicle supports a wide range of other potential destinations such as L-1, a 70,000 km way-station and lunar orbit. 

“The dramatic reduction in in-space propellant requirements enabled by SEP results in a 2X reduction in launcher delivery requirements to complete a mission, which will reduce the need for architectures like propellant depots.”

In recommending SEP technology for a role in NASA’s opening salvo of exploration missions, Aerojet believe they can assist as a facilitator towards enabling and supplying a platform, which itself would provide a key element of a viable exploration plan.

“A near-term operational SEP mission using current technologies serves three critical functions for human spaceflight,” Ms Van Kleeck noted.

“First, it provides an affordable transportation approach for the first deep-space destination for Orion.  Second, it establishes mission operation techniques and capabilities necessary for deep-space exploration.  Third, it provides a low-risk platform on which to validate subsystem/component technologies for follow-on vehicles. 

“These three critical outcomes, which follow the building block approach used over the past 50 years in the human spaceflight program, are why Aerojet recommends this near-term use of current technology Solar Electric Propulsion.”

Aerojet also have ambitions with the key component of the current exploration plan, via the upcoming evaluations into the advanced boosters which will provide the long-term assist of SLS’ ride uphill during first stage.

An article on Aerojet and SLS, along with other items of interest, will be forthcoming.

(Images: Via Aerojet, NASA and L2 content, driven by L2′s fast exapanding SLS specific L2 section, which includes, presentations, videos, graphics and internal updates on the SLS and HLV, available on no other site.)

(L2 is – as it has been for the past several years – providing full exclusive SLS coverage, available no where else on the internet. To join L2, click here: http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/l2/)

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SNC Chasing The Dream:

SNC class themselves as the complete system provider and claim to have demonstrated significant progress maturing design and development of the Dream Chaser Space System (DCSS), which saw them become one of the winners of the CCDev-2 contract award – resulting in $80m of funds being provided from NASA, who are aiming to return a domestic crew launch capability by the middle of the decade.

The Dream Chaser would launch atop of an Atlas V – building on studies which range back several years – as first revealed via NASASpaceflight.com’s article on the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with the United Launch Alliance (ULA) in 2007.

Dream Chaser – which is a reusable lifting body vehicle based on the form of NASA Langley’s HL-20 spaceplane concept from the 1980s – can land on a conventional runway, unlike all of its capsule-based competitors, as much as SpaceX are looking into a rocket assisted landing on land for their Dragon capsule.

Working through the completion of 19 milestones per CCDev-2 – the latter of which is listed as the Free Flight Test, which will be a piloted Flight test from carrier aircraft to characterize handling qualities and approach and landing – Senior Director of Space Exploration Systems, Merri J Sanchez, PHD, updated the status of their activities this week at the AIAA Rocky Mountain Section Speakers Program in Colorado.

Noting the extensive heritage Dream Chaser already has on record – which ranges as far back as the genesis of the Russian BOR-4, X-24A and HL-10 – Dr Sanchez cited a total of 1200 wind tunnel tests and numerous simulations gained via the HL-20 program alone.

Utilizing modern materials, CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) and their own wind tunnel data, the design continues to be qualified via advanced development techniques.

With the Outer Mould Line (OML) of the HL-20, Dr Sanchez noted Dream Chaser has low re-entry deceleration loads – less than 1.5G – with a large cross range ability, low impact landing and no black zones during ascent trajectory, with Return To Landing Site (RTLS) ability (runway return).

The vehicle is capable of flying with 2-7 crew in upright or recumbent seating, or uncrewed, with the ability of carrying 1000kg of cargo in replacement of crewmembers. The crew will ingress via overhead access hatch on the ground, while the spacecraft will dock aft facing.

Dream Chaser sports non-toxic hybrid motors (HTPB, N2O) which have been built in-house, with Reaction Control Systems (RCS) utilizing N2O and Ethanol. The spacecraft’s on orbit power will be supplied via Batteries using a trickle charge from the ISS.

SNC also cite they are working with a wide range of companies to achieve their orbital goals, mentioning ULA, USA, Aerojet, NASA, Scaled, MDA, Boeing, Hamilton Sundstrand, Draper Lab, SAS and others. They also have an active student program, who have assisted in model and simulation work.

Testing milestones have proceeded without any major issues, with Dr Sanchez noting that structural testing began in December, 2010 at a testing lab at the University of Colorado.

Milestones included three rocket motor tests in one day including vacuum start, and CCDev testing will continue through to the end of July, 2012 – a process which ranges from physically building flight hardware, through to advancing through the PDR (Preliminary Design Review) level, and the testing of numbers systems through the CDR (Critical Design Review) phase.

SNC noted that the engineering test article – which is entirely made out of composite materials – was delivered in December of last year, which will become a flight vehicle for an atmospheric test flight.

Dr Sanchez added that engineers are currently outfitting the vehicle with the aeroshell.

Other items of interest were mentioned during the address, noting the first uncrewed launch will involve horizontal landing. The vehicle is capable of mission durations lasting a lengthy 210 days when docked (to the International Space Station), and will always be ”crew active” for prox ops.

For abort safety, the vehicle does sport crew bailout capability – as a last resort, with runway landings always intended in abort situations - and for a pad abort, testing will use hybrid motors which are sized for specifically for such an emergency scenario.

The crew, which will launch and land in Florida – as much as it can land at any commercial airport – will egress out of the aft of the vehicle on the runway after landing.

Dream Chaser is targeting a landing speed of 191 knots, after re-entering the atmosphere protected by what is being described as a Thermal Protection System (TPS) that is similar to that on the Space Shuttle.

Dr Sanchez also recognized a certain romanticism between Dream Chaser and fans of the Shuttle, but noted their “runway landing” vehicle is very practical, particularly from a turnaround and cross-range perspective.

In fact, it was noted the vehicle has around one thousand miles of theoretical cross range, it can land on a runway from virtually any point in the orbit, and can land on a CONUS runway in no longer than six hours. It was also mentioned that Dream Chaser is capable of something the ISS program consider particularly valuable, which is its “dissimilar redundancy” when compared to capsules.

Looking towards the future, SNC expect the CCDev-3 stage to be announced as early as February 7, with a 45 day response period. SNC have seven more milestones to complete via the ongoing CCDev-2 stage.

Speaking about their launch vehicle of choice, SNC were full of praise for Atlas V and its reliability – something which has seen it become the main vehicle of preference with several of the commercial crew companies – despite Atlas V’s current status of not being a human-rated vehicle.

Work is continuing to take place to allow the United Launch Alliance (ULA) rocket to launch humans into space, with the key focus on the Emergency Detection System (EDS).

As confirmed in July of last year, NASA and the ULA are working via an agreement for technical support via NASA’s Commercial Crew Program focusing on the human rating of the Atlas V. The unfunded act is expected to result in certifying Atlas V to launch NASA astronauts riding in vehicles such as the Dream Chaser, Boeing CST-100 and Blue Origin’s spacecraft.

NASA is providing feedback to ULA based on its human spaceflight experience for advancing Crew Transportation System (CTS) capabilities and the draft human certification requirements. In turn, ULA is providing NASA feedback on those requirements, including providing input on the technical feasibility and cost effectiveness of NASA’s proposed certification approach.

ULA’s obligations include; continuing to advance the Atlas V CTS concept, including design maturation and analyses. Conduct ULA program reviews as planned, Perform a Design Equivalency Review (DER). Develop Hazard Analyses unique for human spaceflight. Develop a Probabilistic Risk Assessment (PRA). Document Atlas V CTS certification baseline, and Conduct Systems Requirements Review (SRR).

SNC also noted their vehicle is a good match, given – as noted by Dr Sanchez – lots of integration work has already been evaluated with the Atlas V and Dream Chaser over the last six to seven years.

The company expect that hardware testing with the Atlas V – from an integration standpoint – will be the next major phase of marrying the two systems together, ahead of their combined launch into orbit in the coming years.

–

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Gearing up for an ambitious mission on Mars:
 
Like its twin rover, Spirit, Opportunity’s mission was based on 90-solar day mission on surface of Mars. A solar day is based on planetary Mars timekeeping based on Mars’ orbital rotation rate.
 
A solar day on Mars is clocked at 24 hours 39 minutes 35.24409 seconds. Compared to Earth’s 24 hour 00 minute 00.002 second solar day length, the difference in the Earth-Mars solar day results in the Martian solar day lasting 2.7% longer than Earth’s with a conversation factor of 1.027491 days to sols.
 
Thus, since landing on Mars, Opportunity has operated for 2,844 sols, equivalent to 2,922 standard Earth days (Earth sols).

In turn, this long-duration mission puts Opportunity 2,754 sols over its predicted and planned 90 sol-day mission – meaning that Opportunity has functioned 30.6 times longer than anticipated as the rover and its mission control team celebrates its 8th Earth-year anniversary on Mars.

Over these 8 Earth-years on Mars, Opportunity has searched for scientific knowledge based on its original mission objectives, including the search for and characteristic of rocks and soils.

Other objectives of Opportunity’s ongoing mission include the determination of the distribution and composition of minerals, rocks, and soils surrounding the landing site (and beyond, at this point); determination of what geologic processes have shaped the local terrain and influenced the chemistry, including water or wind erosion, sedimentation, hydrothermal mechanisms, volcanism, and cratering; and the performance calibration and validation of surface observations of Mars made by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter to help determine the accuracy and effectiveness of various instruments that survey the Martian geology from orbit.

Moreover, Opportunity’s objectives have and continue to revolve around the search for iron-containing minerals, including the identification and quantification of the relative amounts of specific mineral types that contain water or were formed in water; the characterization of the mineralogy and textures of rocks and soils to determine the processes that created them; the search for geological clues to the environmental conditions that existed when liquid water was present; and the assessment of whether the past Martian environment was conducive for life.

To accomplish the tasks given to it, Opportunity was truly built to last. At a height of 4.9 ft, a width of 7.5 ft, and a length of 5.2 ft, the six-wheeled utility craft was constructed to power itself via solar panels installed on its “back.”

These solar panels, at peak operating condition (clear of Martian dust and dirt), were designed to produce 140 watts of power for four hours per day. The energy produced from the solar panels is then transferred to the Opportunity’s lithium ion batteries for storage and distribution – thus allowing the rover to conserve power when not needed and use energy during non-sunlit portions of the day.

Weighing in a 400 lbs, the craft was built with mobility in mind, needing to not only drive itself to specific locations determined by its control team, but also to navigate around obstacles while driving toward specific targets of interest.

Thus, each wheel on Opportunity was given its own motor as well as steering at the front and rear drive sections.

With a maximum speed of 2 in/s (with an average speed about one-fifth of this), Opportunity was also built with the ability to navigate grades on the Martian surface of up to 30 degrees.

Opportunity was also affixed with nine scientific experiments, including a panoramic camera to examine the texture, color, mineralogy, and structure of the local Martian terrain; a navigation camera for driving purposes; the Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer to identify “promising rocks and soil” for examination; and two Hazcams with 120 degree views for “additional data about its surroundings.”

Opportunity’s robotic arm was fixed with the Mossbauer spectrometer for close-up investigations of the mineralogy of iron-bearing rocks and soils; the Alpha particle X-ray spectrometer for close-up analysis of the abundances of elements that make up rocks and soils; magnets for collects magnetic dust particles; a Microscopic Imager for close-up, high-resolution images of rocks and soils; and the Rock Abrasion Tool (RAT) to expose fresh rock material for examination by instruments on-board the rover.

Getting to Mars:

Like the Space Shuttle orbiter Endeavour and the Mars rover Sojourner before it, the Mars Rover ‘Opportunity’ was named through a student essay competition. The winning entry was written by a Russian-American student who spoke of the spirit and opportunity to achieve her dreams in the United States after living a portion of her life in an orphanage.

With its construction and ground test/validation complete, Opportunity was transported to Florida where the rover underwent final testing and preparations for its trip to Mars.

With final preparations complete, Opportunity was folded up inside its aeroshell. Following the launch of Opportunity’s twin rover Spirit on 10 June 2003, Opportunity was transported to Launch Complex 17B at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, where the assembly was hoisted up and placed atop a Delta II Heavy rocket in mid-June for a June 28th launch.

Bad weather, an insulation problem, and a battery issue on the Delta II rocket forced a nine day delay to Opportunity’s launch.

On 7 July 2003, Opportunity’s launch team targeted the first of two instantaneous launch windows for the day. With just seconds to go in the countdown, an automatic cutoff was ordered by the launch computers when a fill-and-drain value on the Delta II indicated a sluggish response.

The launch team backed out of the terminal count and reconfigured for the second of only two instantaneous launch windows of the evening.

With the fill-and-drain valve issue fixed, the “go” was given to proceed with the count, and the Delta II Heavy rocket lifted off at 23:18:15 EDT with the Opportunity rover.

The launch was the first flight of the Delta II Heavy rocket configuration and occurred six days before the close of the Earth-Mars planetary alignment launch window.

After a 6.5 month cruise to Mars, Opportunity hit the Martian atmosphere just before midnight Eastern Standard Time on 24 January 2004.

Confirmation of a successful landing on Mars was received at 00:05 EST (05:05 UTC) 25 January 2004.

A Hole-in-One landing and the first 90 sols on Mars:

After descending through the Martian atmosphere, Opportunity’s encasement was engulfed in airbags to cushion the rover for the drop down and bounce/roll onto the Martian surface.

Landing on the Meridiani Plamun 25km downrange of its targeted landed sight, Opportunity’s airbag enclosed capsule rolled into an impact crater on the Martian surface before coming to a complete stop.

Upon opening of Opportunity’s encasement, the rover’s control team was amazed to find the rover sitting in the bottom of an impact crater and quickly described the landing as an inter-planetary “hole in one” – even though the rover was not targeting that specific area for landing.

After landing, Opportunity’s landing team christened the crater “Eagle crater,” and, in following with twin rover Spirit’s landing site, officially named Opportunity’s landing site “Challenger Memorial Station” in honor of the Space Shuttle Challenger and her crew who were lost in the Challenger/STS-51L launch accident – the 18th anniversary of which was just 3 days after Opportunity’s landing.

Upon examination of the landing crater, Opportunity showed that the crater was the darkest landing site ever visited by a spacecraft on Mars.

However, the landing presented a challenge for Opportunity’s control team as the rover would now have to climb a relatively steep embankment to get out of the crater.

From a stationary position on its landing bed, Opportunity observed a rock outcropping along the rim of the crater and a compilation of course gray grains in the otherwise reddish sand within the crater.

During this stationary checkout time, Opportunity’s control team discovered a problem with the rover’s robotic arm in the Joint 1 heater – specifically, that the heather on the joint that controls the side-to-side motion of the arm was stuck “on.”

An investigation revealed that the heater most likely failed during final assembly, test, and launch operations.

Since the rover was built with a safety device for this possibility, the T-stat box on the rover terminated the heater at a specific temperature and reactivated the heater once the joint’s temperature fell below a certain degree point.

This meant that Opportunity’s Joint 1 heater turned all for the duration of the Martian night and turned off for significant portions of the Martian day – a not ideal but “livable” issue.

By Sol 15, Opportunity was mobile and examining the rock outcroppings at Eagle crater. Observations made by Opportunity at the time led to the hypothesis that the rocks were formed from “fine grain or dust” instead of compacted sand as Earth sandstone is.

This hypothesis in turn led to the belief that the rocks were formed from volcanic flow, wind, or water. With water as a potential forming agent for the Eagle crater rock outcroppings, Opportunity’s goal of determining the potential that water had once existed on the surface of Mars for a long enough period to effect local geology was underway.

While Opportunity’s exploration at Eagle crater continued, the rover used its robotic arm RAT for the first time on Sol 30. Examination of the cut rock, located at the El Capitan outcropping, indicated signs of erosion (small, elongated voids in the rock visible both on the surface of the rock and in its interior after Opportunity’s drilling) that suggested the presence of liquid water at one point in Mars’ past.

Specifically, scientists revealed that the voids were similar and “consistent” with vugs on Earth rocks.

Furthermore, Opportunity found evidence of water from the MIMOS II spectrometer. This instrument found evidence of the mineral jarosite, a mineral that contains hydroxide ions.

Opportunity’s crew also took this time to dig the first-ever trench by the Mars Rover pair by using the Opportunity’s front wheels. The process, which took less than an half-hour, created a trench 20 inches long by 4 inches deep.

The resultant dig revealed a “clotty texture” to the soil in the upper part of the trench and bright soil in the trench’s bottom.

The dig also revealed rounded, shiny pebbles and fine-grained soil particles too small for the rover’s microscope to discern.

Beyond the 90-sol-day warranty - Opportunity at Endurance Crater:

After leaving its landing site behind, Opportunity reached Endurance crater on Sol 95 – five days beyond its expected life time on Mars.

After completing a circumnavigation of the crater, Opportunity was directed toward the rock Lion Stone, which it arrived at 12 days after making it to Endurance crater.

Opportunity’s investigations of this rock found that it had a similar composition as those found at Eagle Crater.

By 4 June 2004, Opportunity’s team made the decision to send the rover itself into Endurance crater to examine an interesting area of rocks. This decision was made with the knowledge that the rover may not have been able to climb back out of the crater.

Opportunity began its descent into Endurance crater on 8 June 2004 before immediately backing out of the crater to test its descent angle. The information provided by this drive in/drive out maneuver confirmed that the angle of the crater’s surface was well within Opportunity’s operating limits.

After driving into Endurance crater on 12 June 2004, Opportunity spent 180 sols inside the crater examining the various rock formations – and even observing Earth-like wispy clouds in Mars’ atmosphere.

During this time, Opportunity returned valuable scientific data on the soil composition and sedimentary geology of Endurance crater.

A Stellar Find for Opportunity and a drive south:

After completing operations at Endurance crater, Opportunity’s team commanded the rover to begin driving toward its own discarded heat shield that protected it during Martian atmospheric entry almost one year prior.

While conducting this examination of its heat shield, Opportunity stumbled upon a rock that would prove to be one the rover’s most significant finds: a meteorite on the surface of Mars.

Discovered on Sol 345, the meteorite was the first one ever discovered on a planet other than Earth (though two meteorites had already been discovered on the Moon), and was first identified an “unusual” because it had an infrared spectrum similar in appearance to a reflection of the sky of Mars.

Measurements and examinations by Opportunity showed the meteorite was composed of 93 percent iron and 7 percent nickel.

Because of a lack of knowledge of Mars’ environment, whether the meteorite fell to Mars relative recently or several millions if not billions of years ago is unknown.

Opportunity has since found, to date, five similar meteorites.

After this discovery, Opportunity’s team directed the rover to dig another trench before setting off for Vostok crater.

After reaching Vostok crater and spending a few days in the vicinity, Opportunity was commanded southward to the “etched terrain.”

During this time, Opportunity set a single-day distance driving record by travelling 772 ft.

Stopping for six days to investigate soil surface ripples on the Meridiani Planum, Opportunity became the unwitting victim in a sand trap approximately 20 Martian days after leaving the rippled sands.

Opportunity became stuck in the sand on 26 April 2005 after attempting to climb over a dune that measured only 12 inches (30 centimeters) in height.

The dune was quickly dubbed “purgatory dune” because of the predicament it now posed.

Spending an agonizing 38 Sols stuck in the sand, Opportunity was eventually able to free itself after ground controllers simulated the condition here on the Earth.

Through a precise series of commands and maneuvers, Opportunity painstakingly moved only centimeters at a time so mission controllers could monitor progress and assess a best next move scenario after each labored movement forward.

After being freed, Opportunity spent 12 Sols studying purgatory dune before continue southward toward its target of Erebus crater.

The road to Victoria crater:

While Erebus crater was, in-hindsight (considering Opportunity’s longevity), always a stop-over on the way to Victoria crater, the year-long period between Opportunity’s arrival at Erebus (October 2005) and arrival at Victoria (September 2006) crater was a year filled with notable milestones for the mission, including the first dust storm endured by the rover, a cleaning event on its solar panels, and further problems with the rover’s robotic scientific arm.

During this time, a new program was uploaded to Opportunity that would prevent the rover from becoming stuck in another sand dune.

This program proved invaluable on Sol 603 when the program triggered an “all stop” command to Opportunity when the rover’s wheel-slip percentage reached 44.5 percent – thus preventing Opportunity from getting stuck in another sand dune.

By Sol 628, though, the rover was engulfed in a dust storm that lasted three days. The storm deposited numerous quantities of dust onto the rover’s solar panels and reduced total power generation on the rover.

However, as luck would have it, a sudden cleaning event took place less than three weeks after the dust storm, restoring Opportunity’s power generating capabilities to 80 percent of maximum.

The cleaning events occur when Martian winds blew the dust off the solar panels.

But by this point, Opportunity’s control team was battling a further issue with the rover’s Joint 1 heater.

As Opportunity approached its first Martian winter back in May 2004, the control team commanded the rover into deep sleep at night, a procedure which disconnected Opportunity’s systems from the main battery – thus preventing the Joint 1 heater from remaining “on” throughout the day and night as temperatures dropped in the Martian winter.

However, this procedure exposed the mechanical joint to extreme temperature swings during the day and night and eventually led to the stall of the Joint 1 motor on 25 November 2005.

At this point, Opportunity’s control team commanded the rover to send a higher-than-normal electrical current the arm to unstow it. This approach worked, though the joint would occasionally stall.

By late March 2006, after 760 sols on Mars, Opportunity departed Erebus crater for Victoria crater, arriving 191 sols later.

Time at Victoria crater – A struggle for survival:

Upon arriving at Victoria carter on 16 September 2006, Opportunity photographed the crater and returned the first substantial views of Victoria’s 7 kilometer wide impact crater.

During initial observations at Victoria, Opportunity revealed a dune field at the bottom of the crater as well as a slope leading into the crater itself.

While Opportunity investigated the rim of Victoria crater, mission controllers sent a software upgrade package to the rover that allowed it to make internal decisions on whether or not to transmit images back to Earth and whether or not to extend its robotic arm for scientific investigation.

By mid-May 2007, while crater rim observations and investigations continued, a series of significant cleaning events allowed for unprecedented power increases to the rover to levels not seen since Sol 18 of the mission.

This dramatic increase in power generating capability came at the best time possible as residual daily power was stored in Opportunity’s batteries just a month before devastating dust storms nearly claimed the rover.

Beginning in June 2007, Mars’ six Earth-year dust storm cycle began, clouding the Martian atmosphere in dust and blocking 99 percent of sunlight from reaching Opportunity’s solar panels – while at the same covering the rover’s solar panels and significantly reducing the rover’s ability to gather the small amount of sunlight actually reaching it.

As power level dropped to dangerously low levels, NASA released a statement saying, “We’re rooting for our rovers to survive these storms, but they were never designed for conditions this intense.”

Normal solar panel generation of 700 watt-hours energy per day dropped to only 128 watt-hours on 18 July 2007 on Opportunity. As a result, Opportunity began draining its batteries to preserve system power and heating requirements.

The rover’s control team, in response, commanded the rover to only communicate with Earth every three days to converse power for its heaters.

By late-July 2007, Opportunity was barely getting enough solar energy each day to survive, and the temperature in the rover’s electronics module was dropping. At this point, NASA stated that if temperatures continued to drop, Opportunity’s low-power fault program could trip, disabling the rover’s batteries and putting Opportunity into sleep mode.

“There is a real risk that Opportunity will trip a low-power fault. When a low-power fault is tripped, the rover’s systems take the batteries off-line, putting the rover to sleep and then checking each sol to see if there is sufficient available energy to wake up and perform daily fault communications.

“If there is not sufficient energy, Opportunity will stay asleep. Depending on the weather conditions, Opportunity could stay asleep for days, weeks or even months, all the while trying to charge its batteries with whatever available sunlight there might be.”

At this point, NASA also stated that there was a real chance that Opportunity, if placed into sleep mode, would never wake up.

But despite these abysmal odds, Opportunity never tripped its low-power fault, and by 7 August 2007, with the dust storms beginning to subside, power levels were sufficient for Opportunity to start taking pictures of the Martian dust storm again.

By 21 August, Opportunity’s batteries were fully charged, and the rover began driving again for the first time since the dust storm began – an amazing endurance story for the rover that had, by this point, survived the “un-survivable” scenario on Mars’ surface during full-fledged operations three years beyond its expected 90 sol day death date from low power levels because of predicted dust accumulation on its solar panels.

Recovering from the dust storm, Opportunity began its descent into Victoria crater on 11 September 2007 to test the terrain’s stability and slope gradient.

With final checks complete, Opportunity descended the Duck Bay ramp into Victoria crater on 13 September 2007 where it explored, for the next Earth-year, the rock composition of Duck Bay and the face of Cape Verde in great scientific detail.

By 15 April 2008, while still inside Victoria crater, Opportunity’s robotic arm once again failed to respond to commands, and the Joint 1 motor stalled at the beginning of unstowing operations.

The motor stalled on all follow-up unstow attempts – something the differed from previous unstow stalls where the motor worked on subsequent attempts.

A month of testing followed, during which controllers monitored resistance on the joint at various times in the day.

After rover wake up on Sol 1531 (14 May 2008), Opportunity was commanded to unstow its robotic arm. The command worked, and the arm extended from underneath the rover.

At this point, the decision was made to never stow the arm again, and a safe, arm-extended drive configuration was determined and implemented.

Thus, since May 2008, nearly 4 years ago and for half its time on Mars, Opportunity has driven across the surface of Mars with its robot arm fully extended out in front of it.

A new mission target - Endeavour crater:

With the rover in good health, Opportunity’s control team elected to send the rover on a 14 mile (22 kilometer) trek to Endeavour crater.

Emerging from Victoria crater between 24-28 August 2008 (Sols 1630-1634), Opportunity began the impressive trek for Endeavour crater, stopping along the way to investigate various “dark cobbles” on the Meridiani Planum.

Endeavour crater was chosen in large part due to expectations that deeper stacks of rocks would be seen at Endeavour crater than at Victoria crater. Furthermore, the team opted to send Opportunity to Endeavour crater following the discovery of phyllosilicate, clay-bearing rock at Endeavour crater – rock that is hospitable to life.

During the predicted two year drive to Endeavour crater, Opportunity was temporarily out of contact with Earth during the Solar conjunction of November/December 2008 at which time Earth and Mars were on opposite sides of the sun from one another.

By March 2009, Opportunity’s cameras could see the rim of Endeavour crater, as well as Iazu crater – which was 38 kilometers (24 miles) away from the rover at the time.

By 18 July 2009 (Sol 1850), Opportunity was directed to reverse course away from Endeavour crater and toward a large, black rock.

The rover reached the rock ten Earth-days later, at which point it was discovered that the rock was yet another meteorite.

After examination of the rock, Opportunity was again commanded to drive toward Endeavour crater, but was stopped again on Sol 2022 when it found yet another meteorite. After examining this meteorite for 12 Sols, Opportunity found yet another meteorite on Sol 2038.

This time, the rover did a “drive by” investigation, taking photographs of the meteorite while continuing on toward Endeavour crater.

Opportunity again stopped on Sol 2061 (10 November 2009) to investigate a rock target that’s identity was not initially clear.

It was eventually determined that the rock was rock ejecta material from deep within Mars.

Investigation of the rock ejecta concluded on Sol 2122 (12 January 2010), and the rover arrived at Concepcion crater on 28 January 2010.

After circumnavigating the crater, Opportunity once again set out for Endeavour crater.

By 5 May 2010, a new route to Endeavour crater was plotted to avoid potentially hazardous sand dunes.

Then, on Sol 2246 (19 May 2010), the Opportunity rover, despite arriving on Mars after its twin rover Spirit, became the longest-surviving surface mission on Mars, surpassing the previous 2245 Sol duration set by the Viking 1 mission from the late 1970s to early 1980s.

On Sol 2420 (14 November 2010), Opportunity’s odometer passed the 25 kilometer mark – shattering all estimates for how far the rover would actually drive on the surface of Mars.

In mid-December 2010, Opportunity began several weeks of observations at Santa Maria crater – observations that were compared to orbital data from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO).

At the conclusion of the 2010 Earth-year, Opportunity had driven more miles since leaving Victoria crater in August 2008 (the equivalent of 1 Martian year) than it had in any previous year – all while being 4-6 years beyond its originally estimated life span.

Opportunity spent the two-week solar conjunction of early 2011 at Santa Maria crater before beginning the final 6.5 kilometer journey to Endeavour crater in late March 2011.

By 1 June 2011, Opportunity passed the 30km life-time traverse mark – a distance 50 times greater than its operational designed traverse distance.

By 17 June 2011, Opportunity had driven 20 miles on the surface of Mars.

After 3 years of travels, Opportunity safely and successfully arrived at Endeavour crater on 9 August 2011 after traveling 13 miles from Victoria crater – a distance more than half of its total traversed distance on Mars.

The rover’s arrival point at Endeavour crater was quickly named “Spirit Point” by Opportunity’s control team in honor of Opportunity’s twin, Spirit, which did not survive the 2010 Martian winter.

Upon arriving at the crater, Opportunity quickly confirmed that the rocks on the rim of crater were older than any other rock previously studied by the rover, and quickly discovered Martian phenomenon not previously seen.

And then, in early December 2011, Opportunity made what is, at this time, its most important discovery while analyzing the “Homestake” formation.

Instruments on the rover were able to confirm that the “Homestake” formation is composed of gypsum – a mineral that does not occur except in the presence of water.

The rock was quickly nick-named “slam dunk” as it finally provided hard evidence that liquid water once flowed on Mars – thus providing substantial support for one of Opportunity’s primary mission scientific objectives.

An enduring legacy:

Throughout its eight year tenure on Mars, the rover Opportunity has greatly and in many ways drastically increased our knowledge of Mars as well as how our technology survives on the Martian surface.

Based on its tremendous scientific finds, life-span, and endurance beyond all odds, several honors have been conferred upon the Opportunity rover. Asteroid 39382 was officially named Opportunity in honor of the rover.

Furthermore, Opportunity is one of only 13 robots to be inducted into the robot hall of fame alongside the da Vinci Surgical System, fellow Mars rover Sojourner, Unimate (the first industrial robot which worked on the General Motors assembly line in 1961), and twin rover Spirit.

Moreover, while Opportunity’s landing site paid tribute to the Space Shuttle Challenger and her crew, Opportunity itself stands as a tribute and memorial to the men and women lost in the September 11th terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center, as metal from the twin towers was repurposed and used as cable protection shields on the twin rovers Opportunity and Spirit.

But perhaps the best way to continue to remember Opportunity, even though its time on Mars is not yet over, is the tremendous distance and longevity of the rover.

Travelling 21.33 miles, Opportunity has exceeded by more the 50 times the driving distance it was built for, it survived a severe Martian dust storm despite legitimate fears that it would not, it has conducted long-term investigations of four craters and entered, under its own power, two craters (not including the hole-in-one landing in Eagle Crater), and it has survived 30.6 times longer than originally planned.

(All Images via NASA, NASA JPL, NASA APOD).

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