Delta Mariner Accident:

The Mariner – which is capable of carrying up to three common booster cores on the 2,100 mile journey from Alabama to Florida – was originally designed to carry Delta IV hardware from the production plant to the launch sites, while the Atlas hardware was delivered from its production facility in Denver to the launch sites by aircraft.

This process was reviewed in 2009, when the Atlas V production line was consolidated in Decatur, leading to ULA evaluations into common transportation options for both vehicles and the potential cost savings.

In mid-2011, Atlas hardware began sharing a ride on the Delta Mariner, completing a dual shipment, carrying both Atlas and Delta stages to Florida for future missions.

The ship was carrying an Atlas first stage and a Centaur upper stage for the April mission to launch the Air Force’s Advanced Extremely High Frequency (AEHF-2) satellite.

Advanced Extremely High Frequency -2 (AEHF-2) is set to become part of a series of communications satellites operated by the United States Air Force Air Force Space Command. The spacecraft will be used to relay secure communications for the Armed Forces of the United States, the British Armed Forces, the Canadian Forces and the military of the Netherlands.

The system will eventually consist of four spacecraft in geostationary orbits, with one bird already in orbit. AEHF is replacing the older Milstar system and will operate at 44 GHz Uplink (EHF band) and 20 GHz Downlink (SHF band).

The vessel was also shipping an interstage adapter for NASA’s Radiation Belt Storm Probes (RBSP) mission, scheduled to launch in August.

RBSP is being designed to help us understand the Sun’s influence on Earth and Near-Earth space by studying the Earth’s radiation belts on various scales of space and time.

The instruments on NASA’s Living With a Star Program’s (LWS) Radiation Belt Storm Probes (RBSP) mission will provide the measurements needed to characterize and quantify the plasma processes that produce very energetic ions and relativistic electrons.

The RBSP mission is part of the broader LWS program whose missions were conceived to explore fundamental processes that operate throughout the solar system and in particular those that generate hazardous space weather effects in the vicinity of Earth and phenomena that could impact solar system exploration.

RBSP instruments will measure the properties of charged particles that comprise the Earth’s radiation belts, the plasma waves that interact with them, the large-scale electric fields that transport them, and the particle-guiding magnetic field.

The two RBSP spacecraft will have nearly identical eccentric orbits. The orbits cover the entire radiation belt region and the two spacecraft lap each other several times over the course of the mission. The RBSP in situ measurements discriminate between spatial and temporal effects, and compare the effects of various proposed mechanisms for charged particle acceleration and loss.

The Delta Mariner, owned and operated by Foss Marine, made contact with the Eggner Ferry Bridge at US Highway 68 and Kentucky Highway 80 over the Tennessee River Thursday evening at 8:15 pm. Central Time resulting in a portion of the bridge collapsing, noted ULA in a release.

Kentucky Transportation Cabinet (KYTC) spokesperson Keith Todd told the media that it was a miracle no one was killed, as there were four cars on the bridge and an off duty officer about to cross. Despite damaging two spans of the bridge, no vehicles were on those sections when the accident occurred.

While an investigation will likely reveal the cause of the accident, it appears the ship may have been off course, or mis-directed, given the bridge has lights that span navigable waterways.

One of the spans of the bridge was completely destroyed and became wrapped around the around the front portion of the vessel, but appears to have avoided any hull damage. 20 crewmembers were on board the Delta Mariner, none of which were injured during the accident.

“The Mariner cargo area of the ship and the flight hardware did not experience any damage. The hardware is well instrumented and all data from these instruments is being reviewed to confirm that there were no issues. The Coast Guard is conducting an investigation,” added the ULA statement.

(Images: ULA, Associated Press and KYTC).

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Delta IV/WGS:

Wideband Global Satcom, or WGS, is one of three next-generation communications systems being introduced by the US military, along with the Advanced Extremely High Frequency (AEHF) and Mobile User Objective System (MUOS). Originally named Wideband Gapfiller Satellite, WGS was originally conceived as a temporary replacement for the aging Milstar system, until AEHF became operational.

However, its primary mission has become supplementing and eventually replacing the Defense Satellite communications System, or DSCS. Having started as a US programme, WGS has grown to include several other countries, including Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Denmark, the Netherlands and Luxembourg.

The WGS-4 satellite is first Block II WGS satellite, a modification on the original series which incorporates a new bypass system which triples the rate at which reconnaissance aircraft can relay images via the system.

Three Block I WGS satellites are already in orbit; WGS-1 or USA-195 was launched by an Atlas V 421 in October 2007, with WGS-2, or USA-204, following in April 2009, also on an Atlas. In December 2009, WGS-3 or USA-211 was launched on the first flight of the Delta IV-M+(5,4).

Including those already on orbit, current plans call for nine WGS satellites to be launched, with a tenth expected to be ordered in the near future. Each satellite has a mass of 5,990 kilograms, and is capable of receiving and transmitting data on frequencies of 500 megahertz and 1 gigahertz, at rates of up to 3.6 gigabits per second. Each spacecraft can cover 19 areas simultaneously, with eight steerable x-band transponders and ten steerable ka-band transponders.

Boeing is the prime contractor for WGS, with the satellites being based around its BSS-702 satellite bus. Each spacecraft is equipped with an R-4D apogee motor for orbit raising and circularisation manoeuvres, and four XIPS-25 ion engines which will be also be used for orbit circularisation, as well as stationkeeping in geosynchronous orbit.

The satellite will use a pair of solar arrays, equipped with gallium arsenide cells, to generate power. The satellite will be controlled by the US Air Force’s Third Space Operations Squadron, which is based at Schriever Air Force Base in Colorado.

The Delta IV used to launch WGS-4 is Delta 358. Unusually, the rocket’s flight or “Delta number”, has not been painted on the rocket – the number is usually present within a blue triangle on the interstage which symbolises the Delta series of rockets, however on Delta 358 this triangle has been left blank.

Delta 358 was a Delta IV Medium+(5,4) rocket, consisting of a Common Booster Core first stage, with four GEM-60 solid rocket motors, and a five metre Delta Cryogenic Second Stage.

The largest of the Delta IV Medium+ configurations, the (5,4) has only flown once before; deploying the last WGS satellite in December 2009.

The Common Core Booster is a cryogenically-fuelled stage, powered by a single RS-68 engine, burning liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. The main engine will ignite five and a half seconds ahead of launch, followed by the solid rocket motors two hundredths of a second before the countdown reaches zero.

The solid rocket motors provide additional thrust during early ascent, with two also being equipped with moveable nozzles for thrust vectoring, contributing to the vehicle’s attitude control during the initial stages of the flight.

At T-0, Delta 358 lifted off from Space Launch Complex 37, and begin its ascent towards orbit. Seven seconds later, it began a manoeuvre to attain an azimuth of 100.97 degrees out over the Atlantic Ocean, and pitched over to attain its planned ascent trajectory. At around 36 seconds after launch, the rocket passed through the sound barrier, and 50.1 seconds into its flight it passed through max-Q, the area of maximum dynamic pressure.

The GEM-60 motors burnt out in pairs at 93.1 and 93.3 seconds after launch, with the thrust-vectoring pair being last to burn out. The two motors with fixed nozzles separated from the first stage 100 seconds into the flight, with the others following 2.35 seconds later.

Three minutes and 27 seconds after launch, the payload fairing separated from around the satellite. The fairing protects the spacecraft during its ascent through the atmosphere, but is no longer needed in space where the particle density is far lower.

The Delta IV-M+(5,4) uses a payload fairing which is a little over eight metres long, and has a diameter of five metres. Just under forty seconds after the fairing separates, the RS-68 shut down, having completed the first stage burn. Eight seconds later, the first and second stages separated by means of sixteen pneumatic actuators.

The second stage, or DCSS, is fuelled by the same cryogenic propellants as the first stage. It is powered by an RL10B-2 engine, with an extendable nozzle. Following separation, the nozzle deployed, before the engine ignited 13 seconds after staging to begin the first of two burns.

This first burn lasted 16 minutes and 15.9 seconds, placing the vehicle into an initial parking orbit for a brief coast phase. This coast lasted for just seven minutes and 44.6 seconds, before the RL10 ignited again for its second burn. After firing for another three minutes and 8.3 seconds, the RL10 again cut off, completing powered ascent.

Nine minutes and 6.2 seconds after the completion of the second burn, or 40 minutes and 42 seconds after launch, the WGS-4 satellite was separated from the DCSS. According to United Launch Alliance, the target orbit at spacecraft separation will be one with a perigee of 440 kilometres, an apogee of 66,870 kilometres, and an inclination of 24 degrees to the equator.

WGS-4 manoeuvred from this supersynchronous transfer orbit into its operational geosynchronous orbit. Three minutes after spacecraft separation, the DCSS began a collision avoidance manoeuvre, which lasted about three minutes and 48 seconds. About half an hour later the upper stage will be safed with propellant tank blowdown, and a hydrazine depletion manoeuvre.

Delta IV launches from Cape Canaveral are conducted from Space Launch Complex 37B. Originally built in the 1960s as a backup launch complex for the Apollo programme, it was used to test hardware which would be used in the moon landings. The first launch from the complex was of SA-5, the first all-up test of the Saturn I, and the first orbital launch of a Saturn rocket, on 29 January 1964.

The original Launch Complex 37 consisted of two pads, but with a single mobile service tower (MST) which could be moved between the two pads. Pad A was never used, whilst pad B, the same pad used by the Delta IV, was used by six Saturn I rockets followed by two Saturn IBs.

The last launch from the complex came in January 1968, when a Saturn IB launched Apollo 5; the first test flight of the Lunar Module in Earth orbit. Following the launch of Apollo 5, LC-37 was mothballed along with Launch Complex 34 ahead of the Apollo Applications programme, which would have seen additional flights of the Apollo spacecraft to Low Earth orbit, which would have made use of the Saturn IB. Of all the Applications proposals, only one ever flew; Skylab.

With only three manned flights required to support this, it was decided that it would be cheaper to convert Launch Complex 39 to accommodate the Saturn IB than to reactivate either LC-34 or LC-37, and the complex was demolished in the 1970s.

In the late 1990s, the site of the former Saturn launch complex was selected for use by the Delta IV, and rebuilt to support it. The new complex was first used for the maiden flight of the Delta IV, which occurred in 2002. Delta 358 will be the fifteenth Delta IV to use the complex, and the twenty-first launch from it overall.

Delta IV launches are conducted by United Launch Alliance, a company formed to operate the Delta II, Delta IV and Atlas V rockets on behalf of the US Government, Lockheed Martin and Boeing. The launch of WGS-4 was the 57th launch to be conducted by ULA since it formed in December 2006. ULA is aiming to conduct eleven Delta IV and Atlas V launches in 2012.

The launch of WGS-4 was the first orbital launch to be conducted by the United States this year. Last year the USA conducted 18 launches, with 17 successful and one failure, however it was overtaken by China in terms of total launches for the first time. The next US orbital launch is currently scheduled for 16 February, when an Atlas V 551 will orbit the first MUOS communications satellite.

The next Delta IV launch is expected to occur in March, when the first Delta IV-M+(5,2) will launch from Vandenberg, carrying the NROL-25 mission for the US National Reconnaissance Office. The next WGS satellite is expected to launch in about a year’s time, also aboard a Delta IV.

(Images via ULA and NASA)

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Atlas V/MSL Mission:

The Mars Science Laboratory (MSL), or Curiosity, is an 850 kilogram rover which was launched towards Mars as part of a 3,400 kilogram spacecraft, including a protective shell, a heat shield and landing system, and a cruise stage to control its trajectory whilst en route to Mars.

Curiosity is about the size of a small car, and carries eleven instrument packages, including cameras, spectrometers, radiation, atmospheric and environmental sensors.

The main instrument suite aboard MSL is the 38-kilogram Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) package. Using mass spectrometry and gas chromatography, SAM will measure the abundances of carbon-based compounds in samples of Martian soil, whilst a laser spectrometer will be used to determine how much hydrogen, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen are present in the atmosphere.

While SAM is MSL’s main instrument, it will not be the first to operate. Two instruments will be collecting data as Curiosity descends towards the surface of Mars. One of these is MEDLI, a technology development and atmospheric research experiment which will collect data during atmospheric entry.

The MEDLI Integrated Sensor Plugs (MISP) will record the rate at which the spacecraft’s heat shield is ablated, whilst the Mars Entry Atmospheric Data System (MEADS) will be used to record atmospheric pressure and measure changes in the spacecraft’s attitude and trajectory during entry. The data collected by MEDLI will be compared to expected design values, to evaluate the performance of the entry shell and heat shield ahead of future missions.

The other instrument designed to operate prior to landing is the Mars Descent Imager, or MARDI. Mounted on the front of the rover, pointing downwards, MARDI will capture high-resolution video of the landing site during the rover’s descent to the surface. Video will be captured from the time at which the heat shield separates from the rover’s protective shell, until the spacecraft lands, however vibrations caused by the spacecraft’s parachutes and landing thrusters may blur some of the frames of video.

After landing, the camera will be deactivated and the data it has collected will be transmitted back to Earth. The video of the landing site can then be used to plan the rover’s journey across the surface of Mars. MARDI was developed by Malin Space Science Systems, who continued work on the instrument despite it being removed from the mission in 2007, which later enabled NASA to reverse its decision and include the instrument.

MastCam, or the Mast Cameras, will be used to produce medium and high-resolution still imagery and 10 fps high-definition video of the Martian surface; with one of the cameras producing the medium resolution images, and the other the high-resolution ones. The cameras can produce true colour images, or by means of several available filters, monochromatic images.

A dedicated electronics package will process the images without interfering the Curiosity’s other systems, and the rover can store several thousand images at a time for transmission back to Earth. MastCam is so named because the cameras are located on a mast at the front of the rover.

The Chemistry and Camera experiment, or ChemCam, is mounted above MastCam. ChemCam will use a laser to vaporise rock and soil samples for spectrographic analysis, with a telescope focussed on the sample collecting light which will be fed to spectrometers within the body of the rover via fibre-optic cables. A camera will also be included in the instrument, to image rocks after the laser has been used to clear dust away from them.

ChemCam is expected to be able to differentiate between sedimentary and igneous rocks, and to study the chemical composition of rocks and soil, looking for traces of water, and for chemicals which might be harmful to humans on future manned missions to mars. The instrument will also be used to monitor the drilling of samples, and to study marks left on rocks by the effects of weathering.

The Rover Environmental Monitoring Station, REMS, is an environmental research instrument developed by Spain’s Centro de Astrobiologia. It will measure the ground and air temperatures, wind velocity, UV radiation levels, air pressure and humidity. The instrument consists of two perpendicular booms protruding from the mast, and a separate sensor to measure the air pressure. Infrared sensors to measure surface temperature are located on one boom, whilst the other houses humidity sensors. The remaining experiments are present on both booms.

Chemistry and Mineralogy, or CheMin, will be used to identify minerals present in powdered rock and soil samples collected by the rover, by means of x-ray crystallography. The instrument will fire x-ray photons at the sample, and by means of charge-coupled devices surrounding it, the angle by which they are diffracted would be measured.

The diffraction pattern can then be used to determine the structures of minerals present in the sample, and these minerals can subsequently be identified. Determining which minerals are present on Mars enables scientists to identify the conditions present on Mars when they formed, allowing the planet’s past environment to be studied.

The Radiation Assessment Detector, or RAD, will measure radiation levels on the surface of Mars, studying all types of high-energy radiation, both incident from space and emitted by the atmosphere and surface of Mars itself. RAD will use a caesium iodide crystal and silicon plates to detect alpha and gamma radiation, nucleons and ions of elements lighter than iron.

Data on radiation levels can then be used to study the effects of radiation on the Martian surface, and to determine the extent to which humans would be exposed to radiation whilst on the surface during a future manned mission.

A neutron detector, the Detector of Albedo Neutrons or DAN, will be used to monitor neutrons emitted from the surface of Mars after stimulation by incident cosmic rays. Because the hydrogen atoms present in water molecules can act as a neutron moderator, by looking for slower-moving neutrons scientists can determine if water is present in an area.

DAN is funded by Roskosmos, the Russian Federal Space Agency, whose own Mars probe, Fobos-Grunt, remains stuck in low Earth orbit after failing to depart for the red planet earlier in the month.

MSL is equipped with a movable arm which houses two more instruments. One of these is the Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer, APXS, which will be placed onto an area of soil or rock, which it will bombard with alpha particles and x-rays. This will allow the elements present in the soil to be identified. Funded by the Canadian Space Agency, the APXS present of Curiosity is the third to be sent to Mars; previous-generation instruments were carried by the Spirit and Opportunity rovers.

The second instrument on the arm is the Mars Hand Lens Imager, or MAHLI, a camera capable of imaging microscopic features on rocks, with a resolution of up to 13.9 micrometres per pixel. The instrument includes a light which will allow it to be used at night, and a source of ultraviolet radiation which can be used to illuminate the soil by causing some substances to fluoresce.

The camera is expected to yield a greater understanding of the geology of Mars. The arm also carries a drill and a scoop to collect rock and soil samples respectively, and the Dust Removal Tool, a brush to clear dust from areas to be sampled.

Curiosity is the fourth rover to be sent to Mars by the United States. The first, Sojourner, was deployed by the Mars Pathfinder probe as part of NASA’s Discovery programme. Launched aboard a Delta II rocket in December 1996, Mars Pathfinder landed on Mars in July 1997 and deployed Sojourner the day after landing. The rover returned photos and analysed rocks near the landing site, using the Alpha Proton X-ray Spectrometer, a forerunner of the Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer carried by MSL.

The next two rover missions to Mars were the two Mars Exploration Rovers, Spirit and Opportunity. Launched by Delta II and Delta II Heavy rockets on 10 June and 8 July 2003 respectively, the two rovers landed on Mars on 4 and 25 January 2004. The rovers were intended to last for 90 sols, or Martian days, however Spirit operated for 2,210 days before contact was finally lost in March 2010. Opportunity remains operational, and is currently exploring Endeavour, a crater on Meridiani Planu.

The United States is the only country to have successfully deployed rovers on the surface of Mars, and the only country to have attempted to deploy freely moving rovers on the planet, however the Soviet Union did attempt to land two small Prop-M rovers, which would have remained tethered to the landers that deployed them, as part of the Mars-2 and Mars-3 missions. Mars-2 was lost during landing, whilst Mars-3 landed successfully, however it only operated for about 20 seconds, and never deployed its rover.

Atlas V AV-028 was used to launch the Mars Science Laboratory. It was the twenty eighth flight of an Atlas V rocket, and the maiden flight of the 541 configuration, which featured a five metre payload fairing, four solid rocket motors providing additional thrust at liftoff, and a single-engine Centaur (SEC) upper stage.

The fairing, which had an external diameter of 5.4 metres, is 20.7 metres long. This was the “short” configuration fairing, with a 23.4 metre “medium” length, or a 26.5 metre “long” fairing also available. Several four-metre diameter fairings can also be used, on launches with smaller-sized payloads, provided no more than three solid rocket motors are needed.

The Atlas V is the only member of the Atlas-Centaur family of rockets currently in service. The Atlas-Centaur was originally designed to combine the Atlas intercontinental ballistic missile with a cryogenically-propelled Centaur upper stage. It made its unsuccessful maiden flight in 1962, with its first successful launch coming the next year.

Atlas V/MSL Pre-Launch Flow Article:
http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2011/11/curiosityatlas-v-teams-set-weekend-launch-mars/

The design was refined and improved over the years; by the mid 1980s the Atlas G, featuring a stretched first stage, was in service. The Atlas I, the first numerically identified member of the family, was operated between July 1990 and April 1997.

Introduced in 1991, the Atlas II incorporated uprated first stage engines, as well as a further stretch to the first stage and also a stretch to the Centaur. The Atlas IIA, with uprated second stage engines, entered service the next year. The year after that, the Atlas IIAS, with four Castor-4A solid rocket motors, began flying.

The short-lived Atlas III was operated between 2000 and 2005, and bridged the gap between the Atlas II and the Atlas V. It demonstrated the use of an RD-180 powered first stage, and a single-engine Centaur rather than the twin-engined model used for all previous launches.

The first Atlas V launch occurred in August 2002, when an Atlas V 401 deployed Eutelsat’s Hot Bird 6 satellite. The Atlas V is more modular than its predecessors; it can fly with two different fairing diameters, between zero and five boosters, and with a single of twin engine Centaur. No Dual-Engine Centaur (DEC) launches have been made to date, however it is expected that launches of Boeing’s CST-100 spacecraft will use the DEC, which offers increased performance to low Earth orbit.

Atlas V launches from Cape Canaveral occur from Space Launch Complex 41, the northernmost active complex on the Cape. SLC-41 was originally built as part of the Integrate-Transfer-Launch complex, along with nearby SLC-40, to support Titan IIIC launches during the 1960s. The first launch from the pad occurred in December 1965.

In the early 1970s, the complex was modified to accommodate the Titan IIIE, which replaced the Transtage third stage used on the Titan IIIC with the much more powerful Centaur-D1T. The Titan IIIE, which launched exclusively from SLC-41, deployed the Viking, Voyager and Helios probes to study Mars, the outer planets, and the Sun.

SLC-41 later became a Titan IV launch complex, supporting the Titan IV’s maiden flight in June 1989. Ten Titan IVs were launched from the pad, the last being Titan B-27, which failed to place a Defense Support Program satellite into the correct orbit in April 1999. Six months later SLC-41 was demolished ahead of its conversion for use by Atlas V rockets, which culminated in the maiden flight of the Atlas V in June 2002.

During the Titan era, rockets to be launched from SLC-41 were assembled in the Vertical Integration Building (VIB), before being transported to the pad atop a mobile platform on rails for payload installation and launch. Atlas rockets are instead assembled, and have their payloads installed, in the Vertical Integration Facility (VIF), which is only 550 metres away from the pad. In 2006, the disused VIB was demolished.

Following assembly, payload integration and final testing, AV-028 was transported from the VIF to the pad atop its mobile launch platform on Friday. The rocket departed the VIF at 13:02 UTC (08:02 local), and arrived at the pad 41 minutes later. The launch was originally scheduled to have occurred on Friday, following a rollout on Thursday, however a 24 hour delay was called to replace a faulty battery in the rocket’s range safety systems.

When the countdown reached T-2.7 seconds, the first stage’s RD-180 engine ignited. The Common Core Booster (CCB), which is the first stage of the Atlas V, is fuelled by RP-1 and liquid oxygen, and powered by a single engine. Four solid rocket motors, manufactured by Aerojet, provide additional thrust at liftoff, and ignited when the countdown reached zero. At tha point the rocket was ready to lift off, however liftoff itself did not occur until T+1.1 seconds, when the vehicle’s thrust exceeded its weight.

About a second after liftoff, the engines reached full thrust, with the rocket executing a manoeuvre to attain the correct attitude for its ascent at T+5.2 seconds.

AV-028 reached supersonic speed at around 34.6 seconds mission elapsed time, as it passed through the sound barrier. Just under twelve seconds later the vehicle experienced the area of maximum dynamic pressure, or Max-Q.

Burnout of the four solid rocket motors came between 85 and 90 seconds into the flight, with separation occurring 112.5 seconds after launch. Separation of the payload fairing, used to protect MSL during its ascent through Earth’s atmosphere, came three minutes and 24.9 seconds into the mission, followed shortly afterwards by the forward load reactor, an aluminium structure used to dampen vibrations within the fairing

About 22 seconds after the fairing separated, the first stage engine was throttled down to maintain a force due to acceleration of 4.6G. First stage flight ended with Booster Engine Cutoff, or BECO, which occurred around four minutes and 21.5 seconds after launch.

Stage separation happened six seconds later, with the Centaur igniting just less than ten seconds after that. The Centaur is a cryogenically-fuelled upper stage, which uses liquid hydrogen propellant and liquid oxygen oxidiser. It is powered by a single RL10A-4-2 engine.

To deploy MSL into a heliocentric orbit, AV-028′s Centaur made two burns. The first lasted six minutes, 52.4 seconds, reaching an initial parking orbit. This was followed by a coast phase lasting approximately 19 and a half minutes.

Following the coast phase, a second burn was made, lasting around 480 seconds, sending MSL on its way to Mars. About three and three quarter minutes after the end of the second burn, MSL separated from the Centaur to begin its mission. The timing of the second burn was dependent on the time and date of launch, and consequently was subject to change.

MSL is the third and last spacecraft launched on a mission to Mars this year. The previous two, Fobos-Grunt and Yinghuo-1, were placed into low Earth orbit by a Zenit-2SB rocket earlier this month.

Following a successful launch, the Fobos-Grunt spacecraft failed to execute its first two engine burns to depart Earth orbit, and engineers have been having difficulty communicating with it since. It looks unlikely that the spacecraft can be saved, however efforts to recover it are still ongoing. Yinghuo-1 remains attached to Fobos-Grunt, and will also be lost if Fobos-Grunt cannot be made to depart Earth orbit.

This is the final Atlas V launch of the year, and the last of eleven launches conducted by United Launch Alliance in 2011. ULA’s next scheduled launch is of a Delta IV carrying a Wideband Global Satcom communications satellite in late January next year. The next scheduled Atlas V launch will be of the first Mobile User Objective System (MUOS) communications satellite in February.

(Images: NASA, ULA, L2 and Alan Waters) (NSF and L2 are providing full transition level coverage, available no where else on the internet, from Orion and SLS to ISS and COTS/CRS/CCDEV, to European and Russian vehicles.)

(Click here: http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/l2/ - to view how you can access L2)

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Atlas V - “Winning!”:

With rollout complete for Saturday’s launch of Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) from Cape Canaveral, the United Launch Alliance (ULA) vehicle is aiming for its 28th success in a row, a 100 percent record since its maiden launch in 2002.

The two stage rocket is driven by the Russian-built RD AMROSS RD-180 engine – a kerosene/liquid oxygen derivative of the RD-170 engine developed for the Zenit boosters of the Energia rocket – with a Centaur Upper Stage powered by Pratt & Whitney’s RL10 engine burning liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. Atlas V configurations can include Aerojet strap-on boosters.

The Atlas V is a flight-proven expendable launch vehicle and is currently used by NASA and the Department of Defense (DOD) for critical space missions to launch highly expensive payloads into orbit. Now, Atlas V is walking down the path of proving it can be entrusted with launching humans into orbit.

The MSL launch will be the second flagship mission of the year, following the successful launch of NASA’s Juno probe, which is currently on its way to Jupiter.

With numerous spacecraft successfully lofted uphill, Atlas V’s reliability continues to be an attractive proposition in the launch services industry, despite the continued rise of Arianespace’s industry-leading Ariane 5, and the new kids on the block, such as SpaceX’s Falcon 9 range.

However, the major challenge – one which reaches back into the heritage of the Atlas launch vehicle family – is yet to come, centered around NASA’s Commercial Crew Development (CCDev-2) contracts.

Click here for recent Atlas V specific articles: http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/tag/atlas-v/

Humans On Atlas V:

Ridiculed by previous NASA evaluations during the a period of what sources claim was “protection” for the now-defunct Ares I, Atlas V was shunned from crewed mission viability via the notion of “black zones” – a claim that the vehicle’s trajectory was unable to safely abort a crewed mission in the event of a serious failure.

It was documented that NASA considered – and rejected – the use of Atlas V as a Space Shuttle replacement for human space flight during their Exploration Systems Architecture Study (ESAS) in 2005. However, this was mainly based on the heavy Orion crew vehicle of the time.

Just one year later, in 2006, Lockheed Martin noted that for a 20mt crew vehicle, there was enough margin in the Atlas V 401′s flight envelope to allow the crew to safely abort at any time during launch, closing all unsafe ‘black-zones’. Also, for such a mass requirement, structural loads on the vehicle would be decreased to the point all primary structures meet NASA 1.4 Factor of Safety margins.

Analysis also showed the Russian-built RD-180 engine in this regime revealed only one component that “fell a hair below” the 1.4 margin, at a 1.38 Factor of Safety. This led to the 2006/2007 agreements with Bigelow Aerospace for crew transportation requirements to the planned commercial space hotel complex.

Little more was heard for a few years, as Atlas V continued to loft payload after payload successfully into orbit, that was until the Commercial Crew drive by NASA, as the Agency scrambled to close the gap between the retirement of the Shuttle’s NASA role and the handover of Low Earth Orbit (LEO) to commercial companies.

The breakthrough for Atlas V came in July of this year, as ULA signed an agreement with NASA for an unfunded Space Act Agreement (SAA) to work on human rating the launch vehicle, with the goal of certifying Atlas V to launch NASA astronauts riding in vehicles such as the Dream Chaser, Boeing CST-100 and Blue Origin’s spacecraft.

The process – which includes NASA managers providing oversight into the evaluations – is proceeding to plan, as ULA successfully completed the second required major performance milestone, known as the Design Equivalency Review (DER), which completes a rigorous assessment of the flight-proven Atlas V launch vehicle’s compliance with NASA human spaceflight requirements.

To successfully complete the DER, NASA human spaceflight experts and ULA engineers worked over a span of several months to perform a detailed review of all NASA requirements and processes, and identified the extent to which the Atlas V meets those requirements.

With a hat-tip to how Atlas V is already entrusted with the safe flight of billion dollar spacecraft, the need for any lengthy and inherently risky launch vehicle development program is expected to be avoided.

“The Design Equivalency Review allowed the NASA team to compare their stringent human spaceflight requirements against the Atlas V design and demonstrated performance,” noted George Sowers, vice president of business development and advanced programs.

“The ULA team benefited greatly from NASA’s insight and expertise. The completion of the DER is one more step towards confirming that Atlas V is the best choice for providing near-term, safe and affordable launch services for NASA human spaceflight.

“With 27 consecutive successes – 98 for the Atlas program as a whole – Atlas V provides the highest confidence, lowest risk solution for human spaceflight.”

ULA – announcing the news this week – also noted that as NASA moves forward into the first phase of the Commercial Crew Integrated Design Contract (CCIDC), ULA are confident they will be the launch provider of choice to offer human-certified Atlas launch services to meet the needs for the crew transportation system providers.

“The CCIDC is the critical first step towards creating a robust commercial crew transportation capability to low-Earth orbit (LEO).  ULA looks forward to continued work with our customers and NASA to develop a U.S. crew space transportation capability providing safe, reliable and cost-effective access to LEO and the International Space Station.” added Dr Sowers.

Other milestones in work include the Development of Hazard Analyses unique for human spaceflight, the Development of a Probabilistic Risk Assessment (PRA), the Documenting of Atlas V CTS (Crew Transportation System) certification baseline, and to Conduct Systems Requirements Review (SRR).

The majority of this process is expected to be completed by the end of this year (2011), with the SAA allowing ULA to work with NASA to gain invaluable insight into their unparalleled expertise in Human Spaceflight. Through this SAA, NASA’s Commercial Crew Program and ULA will establish an Atlas V system baseline compliance with NASA CTS requirements and processes.

A large part of the effort is focused on the continued development of an Emergency Detection System prototype test bed. The EDS will monitor critical launch vehicle and spacecraft systems and issue status, warning and abort commands to crew during their mission to low Earth orbit.

EDS is the sole significant element necessary for flight safety to meet the requirements to certify ULA’s launch vehicles for human spaceflight, a certification ULA are confident of acquiring.

Atlas V’s Commercial Crew Passengers:

While Atlas V makes progress towards becoming a Commercial Crew provider, the transports which have already opted to fly with the ULA vehicle are also pushing forward with their CCDev-2 goals – with varying levels of success.

Boeing and their CST-100 spacecraft – recently signed a 15 year lease to utilize Orbiter Processing Facility (OPF-3) at the Kennedy Space Center (KSC). The deal was announced following a NASA agreement with Space Florida – the State’s aerospace economic development agency.

Boeing are currently working through their CCDev-2 contract milestones – worth over $92m – which is centered around their CST-100 capsule, a vehicle which is configurable to carry up to seven crew/passengers or an equivalent combination of passengers and pressurized cargo to LEO destinations, including the ISS and the BA-330 space complex.

While their CST-100 capsule is compatible with multiple launch vehicles, the Atlas V was confirmed as the initial LV of choice, following their August, 2011 deal.

According to an expansive CCDev-2 presentation – acquired by L2 – development kicked off with a Delta Systems Definition Review, followed by a Phase 0 Safety review, both of which were completed in May. A Landing Air Bag drop demo was completed in August, followed by Phase 1 Wind Tunnel Tests.

October was on the schedule for the Interim Design Review (IDR) take place – although its completion is yet to be confirmed – with a Parachute Drop Test demo on the books for next April, part of a total of 25 CCDev2 milestones.

Boeing plans to use wind tunnel testing of the Atlas V and the CST-100 this year to complete a Preliminary Design Review (PDR) of the integrated system in 2012 under the second round of its Commercial Crew Development Space Act Agreement with NASA.

The run up to the PDR will include Service Module Propellant Tank Development Tests and the Launch Vehicle Emergency Detection System (EDS)/Avionics System Integration Facility Interface Simulation testing taking place.

Boeing claim they will be ready to provide services by 2015, a target date which is being used by most of the CCDev-2 award winners, as much as recent concerns over NASA funding is threatening slips in the schedule by one to two years.

Blue Origin’s $22m award was for their their biconic-shape capsule, which will initially launch with the Atlas V launch vehicle, prior to hitching a lift uphill via its own Reusable Booster System (RBS).

The vehicle is capable of carrying seven passengers – with an ability for cargo runs – to the ISS, and will be available for independent commercial flights for science, adventure and trips to other orbital destinations.

It is also capable of a 210 day ISS lifeboat role, something Orion (MPCV) was going to be tasked with during its dark days surrounding the cancellation of the Constellation Program (CxP), prior to being re-promoted as a Beyond Earth Object (BEO) vehicle by NASA.

The Blue Origin vehicle has mostly shunned the public limelight, although the aforementioned CCDev-2 presentation provided some details on the key development milestones.

“During CCDev-2, Blue Origin with mature their Space Vehicle design through System Requirements Review (SRR), mature the Pusher Escape System, and accelerate engine development for the Reusable Booster System (RBS),” noted the presentation.

While all of the aforementioned events have received their “kick off” meetings, the listed milestones include the Space Vehicle Mission Concept Review in September, ahead of key Pusher Escape Test Vehicle shipment and ground firing either side of the new year.

However, Blue Origin did receive a set-back on August 24 in Texas, when an in-flight failure of their second test vehicle – known as the Vertical-Takeoff, Vertical-Landing (VTVL) test vehicle was suffered at 45,000 feet/Mach 1.2, caused by flight instability triggering the range safety system and shut down the vehicle’s engines.

A Pusher Escape Pad Escape Test is scheduled for April, 2012, followed by the SRR in May – the month which will result in the opening RBS Engine Thrust Chamber Assembly (TCA) test.

Sierra Nevada Corporation (SNC) and their Dream Chaser (DC) Space System (DCSS) provides the poster child of the Atlas V options, given it is the only “space plane” option, as seen via its “baby orbiter” appearance.

Dream Chaser is a Reusable, Piloted Lifting Body, Derived from NASA HL­‐20 launching on an Atlas V, with SNC currently working through 19 milestones via its $80m CCDev-2 effort – the latter of which is listed as the Free Flight Test, which will be a piloted Flight test from carrier aircraft to characterize handling qualities and approach and landing.

Milestones, which are listed alongside a schedule document – include a Systems Requirements Review (SRR), Canted Airfoil Fin Selection, and work on their Cockpit Based Flight Simulator – all completed in June and July.

SNC officially announced the confirmation of the Cockpit Based Flight Simulator milestone – albeit only this month -  a milestone which assists Dream Chaser engineers in evaluating the vehicle’s characteristics during the piloted phases of flight.

Also noted was the activation of the Dream Chaser Program’s Vehicle Avionics Integration Laboratory (VAIL), completed in September. VAIL is a platform for Dream Chaser avionics development, engineering testing, and integration, and will also be used for verification and validation of avionics and software. The lab is linked to the Cockpit Based Simulator hardware and software for integrated system testing.

“The Dream Chaser team, which includes SNC as well as our industry teammates and our NASA partners, has made tremendous progress over the last four months,” noted Jim Voss, Vice President of SNC’s Space Exploration Systems. “Our simulator and avionics lab give us the ability to do engineering evaluations of our complex systems. 

“These successful Milestones, completed on time and within budget, reflect the rapid progress possible in the NASA Commercial Crew Program.”

Other listed notables include the delivery of the Engineering Test Article (ETA) in December, prior to the Preliminary Design Review (PDR) – scheduled for the end of May, 2012.

(Images: L2 Content, NASA CCDev, SNC, ULA, Boeing)

(As the shuttle fleet retire, NSF and L2 are providing full transition level coverage, available no where else on the internet, from Orion and SLS to ISS and COTS/CRS/CCDEV, to European and Russian vehicles. 

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NPP Mission:

NPP – the National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) Preparatory Project – is the first of a new generation of satellites, carrying the first of the new sensors developed for this satellite fleet, now known as the Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS) to be launched in 2016.

The mission will provide a bridge between NASA’s Earth Observing System (EOS) satellites and the forthcoming series of JPSS satellites, as NPP will test key technologies and instruments for the JPSS missions.

“NPP’s observations of a wide range of interconnected Earth properties and processes will give us the big picture of how our planet changes,” said Jim Gleason, NPP project scientist at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md.

“That will help us improve our computer models that predict future environmental conditions. Better predictions will let us make better decisions, whether it is as simple as taking an umbrella to work today or as complex as responding to a changing climate.”

The NPP spacecraft is a member of the Ball Configurable Platform (BCP) family of spacecraft designed for cost-effective, remote sensing applications. Its proven design accommodates a wide range of payloads, including optical applications with sub-meter resolutions and synthetic aperture radar.

The spacecraft bus is the eighth of 11 spacecraft built by Ball Aerospace on the same BCP 2000 core architecture. The BCP 2000 was designed to accommodate a wide variety of Earth-observing payloads that require precision pointing control, flexible high-data throughput and downlinks, and controlled re-entry.

The NPP spacecraft incorporates both MIL-STD-1553 and IEEE 1394 (FireWire) data networks to support the payload suite. The spacecraft has a 7-year design life, with a five-year mission life.

The five instruments manifested for flight on the NPP spacecraft trace their heritage to instruments on NASA’s Terra, Aqua and Aura missions, on NOAA’s Polar Operational Environmental Satellite (POES) spacecraft, and on DOD’s Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP).

Delta II Preparations:

The integration flow at VAFB has proceeded without any major issues, with only slight interruption, such as the 24 hour delay to the NPP transport and mate to the Delta II due to unacceptable winds in the Californian launch site. This process was completed on October 13.

“The SC and can were under the hook by 05:30, (prior to) waiting for ground winds to subside. The can was hoisted at 09:45, and mate was complete by 11:45. There was a ~25 minute interruption in activity due to a pad temperature sensor triggering a false alarm which forced personnel to evacuate the pad,” added L2 notes for October 13′s flow.

Engineers then worked on connecting the GN2 purge to the spacecraft, along with setting up access platforms. Once complete, the spacecraft was then put on air conditioning, while the team worked on the umbilical connections, performed basic tests and “configure for launch” testing – along with charging of the flight battery.

“Ordnance installation and connections, including stage sep ordnance electrical connections, GEM ordnance electrical connections, and SC sep ordnance electrical connections are complete,” added the flow notes.

Technicians then performed a walkdown of the vehicle, ahead of closeouts on the spacecraft, which included the installation of the Payload Fairing (PLF) by ULA engineers.

It was during this point of the flow when a “material review” resulted in a one day slip to the launch date.

“The postponement for at least 24 hours will allow time to complete the necessary engineering review before the payload fairing is installed around the spacecraft,” noted NASA in an update.

With the review passed to the satisfaction of the mission’s stakeholders, Friday’s FRR passed the launch vehicle and spacecraft for launch next Friday.

“The timing of the NPP launch could hardly be more appropriate,” noted Louis W. Uccellini, director of NOAA’s National Centers for Environmental Prediction in Camp Springs, Md. “With the many billion dollar weather disasters in 2011, NPP data is critical for accurate weather forecasts into the future.”

Upcoming milestones include the Launch Management Coordination Meeting and Mission Dress Rehearsal – set to take place over the weekend. This will be followed by Second Stage Oxidizer Load and Second Stage Fuel Load early on the launch vehicle – flying in the 7920-10 configuration – next week.

(Images: NASA) (As the shuttle fleet retire, NSF and L2 are providing full transition level coverage, available no where else on the internet, from Orion and SLS to ISS and COTS/CRS/CCDEV, to European and Russian vehicles.)

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Agreement Details And Reaction:

The agreement to establish clear criteria for certification – of commercial providers of launch vehicles used for national security space and civil space missions – relates to a “new entrant launch vehicle certification strategy” in a cooperative effort by the Air Force, NASA and NRO, in order to take advantage of new launch capability for the three agencies missions.

The new entrant launch vehicle certification strategy is the latest step in a cooperative effort by the Air Force, NRO and NASA to further enable competition and expand the number of companies who are qualified to launch these missions.

The three agencies previously signed a Letter of Intent in October 2010, signalling their collaboration on launch requirements, and a Memorandum of Understanding in March, which outlined their plans for future EELV-class launch vehicle acquisition, including the need to coordinate their strategies for certifying new entrants into the field.

“This strategy is the best balance of ensuring reliable access to space while encouraging competition and innovation in the launch industry,” said Under Secretary of the Air Force Erin Conaton. “We are committed to providing a level playing field to all competitors in the interest of ensuring the best capability for our warfighters and the best value to the American public.”

The risk-based certification framework allows the agencies to consider both the cost and risk tolerance of the payload and their confidence in the launch vehicle. For payloads with higher risk tolerance, the agencies may consider use of launch vehicles with a higher risk category rating and provide an opportunity for new commercial providers to gain experience launching government payloads.

Within a given risk category rating, if new entrants have launch vehicles with a demonstrated successful flight history, then the government may require less technical evaluation for non-recurring certification of the new launch system. This new strategy further enables competition from emerging, commercially developed launch capabilities for future Air Force, NASA, and NRO missions.

The MOU will be followed by detailed guidance for prospective new entrants, which can be applied to any company, such as Orbital, or SpaceX - who immediately welcomed to the agreement’s announcement.

“SpaceX welcomes the opportunity to compete for Air Force launches. We are reviewing the MOU, and we expect to have a far better sense of our task after the detailed requirements are released in the coming weeks,” said Adam Harris, SpaceX Vice President of Government Affairs.

SpaceX are likely to offer their Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launch vehicles as options for USAF launch services.

Currently, the United Launch Alliance (ULA) EELV fleet of Deltas and Atlas’ carry out the vast majority of USAF launches, which SpaceX class as a “monopoly provider whose prices have consistently risen”.

Click here for recent SpaceX News Articles: http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/tag/spacex/

Such language stems back to the legal arguments which resulted in court action in 2005, where SpaceX tried to block the formation of the ULA between Boeing and Lockheed Martin.

In a 44 page formal Complaint and Summons, SpaceX alleged a long history of anti-competitive conspiracy between the Atlas V and Delta IV launch programs. SpaceX claimed that Boeing and Lockheed Martin were guilty of manipulating the US Government-sponsored Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) rocket procurement program.

The anti-trust lawsuit continued through until 2006 – sandwiched by a dismissal – with SpaceX claiming it was being damaged by its exclusion form the USAF 2006 “Buy 3″ EELV Launch Services contracts, receipt of past and future Air Force subsidies, and the USAF’s “pre-allocation” of EELV launches through 2011.

However, the case was dismissed – for a second time – in May, 2006, with Judge Florence-Marie Cooper of the US District Court of Central California noting that “SpaceX’s alleged injuries arise either from past awards for which it was not eligible to bid or future claims that are speculative and unripe.”

Now in 2011, SpaceX are back to prove their worth in competing for the launch service contracts, an open competition which they claim would save the American taxpayer billions of dollars.

“Fair and open competition for commercial launch providers is an essential element of protecting taxpayer dollars,” said Elon Musk, SpaceX CEO. “Our American-made Falcon vehicles can deliver assured, responsive access to space that will meet warfighter needs while reducing costs for our military customers.”

Next up in the process will be the implementation plan, with the Air Force set to publish a new entrant certification guide, which will describe the process for reaching certified status.

In addition, the service is seeking opportunities for future missions that could be made available for new entrants and which would be used to collect technical data needed for their certification.

(Images via SpaceX, USAF)

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CCDEV-2:

With the US now paying for seats on the Russian Soyuz following the retirement of the Space Shuttle, the goal of CCDev-2 is to accelerate the availability of US crew transportation capabilities – both commercial and government – to Low Earth Orbit (LEO) destinations, such as the ISS.

NASA’s CCDev initiatives – which began back in 2009 to stimulate efforts within US industry to develop and demonstrate human spaceflight capabilities – are now in a key phase, although further rounds will be forthcoming, ahead of final selections and full contract awards.

Right now, NASA are providing funds via awards, ranging from $22m to $93m, to the four successful CCDEV-2 companies, as outlined at the start of an expansive and unreleased NASA CCDev-2 presentation, acquired by L2.

“CCDev 2 Announcement (AFP) was released to industry in October: The goals of CCDev 2 investments: Advance orbital commercial CTS concepts. Enable significant progress on maturing the design and development of elements of the system, such as launch vehicles and spacecraft. Accelerate the availability of U.S. CTS capabilities.

“New competition open to all U.S. commercial providers for NASA Space Act Agreements (SAAs). Pay-for-Performance milestones, 14 months performance. Proposals received on Dec 13th. Awards announced April 18th. Approx $269M to four industry partners.”

With the highly important goal of establishing commercial crew vehicles as the primary means for ISS crew transportation, the Agency was authorized funding levels for FY11 – FY13 which were lower than President’s request.

However, though Space Act Agreements (SAA), the amounts of allocated funding to the four winners raised no objections, with Blue Origin receiving $22 million, Sierra Nevada Corporation – $80 million, Space Exploration Technologies (SpaceX) – $75 million, and The Boeing Company $92.3 million.

SNC with Dream Chaser:

Sierra Nevada Corporation (SNC) class themselves as the complete system provider and claim to have demonstrated significant progress maturing design and development of the Dream Chaser (DC) Space System (DCSS).

SNC are receiving unpublished amounts of money from their $80m award pot, following each successful completion of their 19 milestones, the latter of which is listed as the Free Flight Test, which will be a piloted Flight test from carrier aircraft to characterize handling qualities and approach and landing.

Dream Chaser is a Reusable, Piloted Lifting Body, Derived from NASA HL­‐20 launching on an Atlas V. A recent unfunded SAA with the United Launch Alliance (ULA) encouraged the continuing efforts to Human Rate the Atlas V launch vehicle,

“During CCDev-2, SNC plans to mature the Dream Chaser crew transportation system design through a Preliminary Design Review (PDR) with subsystems to the Critical Design Review (CDR),” noted the CCDev-2 presentation (L2). “SNC will also fabricate an atmospheric flight test vehicle, conduct analysis and risk mitigation, and conduct significant hardware testing.”

Milestones, which are listed alongside a schedule document – include a Systems Requirements Review (SRR), Canted Airfoil Fin Selection, and work on their Cockpit Based Flight Simulator – all completed in June and July.

Other listed notables include the delivery of the Engineering Test Article (ETA) in December, prior to the Preliminary Design Review (PDR) – scheduled for the end of May, 2012.

While Dream Chaser may not be the first vehicle to commercially transport astronauts to the ISS, their “baby shuttle orbiter” design has won large amounts of admiration from within the space flight community.

Boeing with CST-100:

Boeing’s award – the largest at over $92m – is centered around their CST-100 capsule, which is configurable to carry up to seven crew/passengers or an equivalent combination of passengers and pressurized cargo to LEO destinations, including ISS and the BA-330 space complex.

The capsule is compatible with multiple launch vehicles, and – following nominal land landings – the vehicle can be reused for up to ten missions. The capsule is currently favored to ride atop of the Atlas V launch vehicle.

A total of 25 milestones are listed in the Boeing released presentation for CCDev-2, although it is heavily censored, listing only 11 of the milestones, the latter of which will be the Preliminary Design Review (PDR). By the conclusion of the CCDev-2 funding period, Boeing also claim they will be 80 percent complete on their Critical Design Review (CDR).

According to the new CCDev-2 presentation – which also avoided listing all 25 milestones – development kicked off with a Delta Systems Definition Review, followed by a Phase 0 Safety review, both of which were completed in May. A Landing Air Bag drop demo was also on the manifest for August 1, to be followed by Phase 1 Wind Tunnel Tests.

October will see the Interim Design Review (IDR) take place, with a Parachute Drop Test demo on the books for next April.

The run up to the PDR will include Service Module Propellant Tank Development Tests and the Launch Vehicle Emergency Detection System (EDS)/Avionics System Integration Facility Interface Simulation testing taking place.

Notably, the EDS testing appears to closely match the work on the Atlas V Human Rating effort, a potential clue as to how closely these two vehicles are associating themselves.

Boeing claim they will be ready to provide services by 2015, a target date which is being used by most of the CCDev-2 award winners.

Blue Origin:

Blue Origin’s $22m award was for their their biconic-shape capsule, which will initially launch with the Atlas V launch vehicle, prior to hitching a lift uphill via its own Reusable Booster System (RBS).

The vehicle is capable of carrying seven passengers – with an ability for cargo runs – to the ISS, and will be available for independent commercial flights for science, adventure and trips to other orbital destinations.

It is also capable of a 210 day ISS lifeboat role, something Orion (MPCV) was going to be tasked with during its dark days surrounding the cancellation of the Constellation Project (CxP), prior to being re-promoted as a Beyond Earth Object (BEO) vehicle by NASA.

The Blue Origin vehicle has mostly shunned the public limelight, although the new CCDev-2 presentation provides some details on the key development milestones.

“During CCDev-2, Blue Origin with mature their Space Vehicle design through System Requirements Review (SRR), mature the Pusher Escape System, and accelerate engine development for the Reusable Booster System (RBS),” noted the presentation.

While all of the aforementioned events have received their “kick off” meetings, the listed milestones include the Space Vehicle Mission Concept Review, which will take place in September, ahead of key Pusher Escape Test Vehicle shipment and ground firing either side of the new year.

A Pusher Escape Pad Escape Test is scheduled for April, 2012, followed by the SRR in May – the month which will result in the opening RBS Engine Thrust Chamber Assembly (TCA) test.

SpaceX with Falcon 9/Dragon:

By far the most famous of the four CCDev-2 award winners – and likely to be a no-brainer for advancing further – SpaceX won’t be surprising anyone by showing they are making good progress with their Dragon vehicle, which will – of course – launch via their own Falcon 9 launch vehicle.

With one test flight already under their belts, most of the focus is on the Launch Abort System (LAS), which will be required prior to allowing human passengers on board for riding uphill with the California-based company.

“SpaceX will mature the flight-proven Falcon 9/Dragon transportation system, focusing on developing an integrated side-mounted Launch Abort System,” noted the NASA oversight presentation.

The listed milestones mainly focus on this LAS effort, with the Propulsion Conceptual Design Review already in the bag, as will the Design Status Review (DSR-1), which was manifested as August 1 on the schedule.

Upcoming over the next few months will be the LAS Propulsion Components PDR in September, followed by the Crew Accommodation Concept Prototype and In-Situ Trial 1 and 2, listed as October of this year and January of 2012 respectively.

The DSR-2 should be completed before the year is out, prior to two key LAS milestones in April and May of 2012, namely the LAS Propulsion Components Test Articles Complete element, and the Initial Test Cycle. The Concept Baseline Review will round off a busy May.

Dragon’s integrated LAS is far more than just a means of aborting a launch in the event of a serious issue. Unlike the traditional tractor system – which is jettisoned shortly after the key events of ascent – SpaceX’s LAS remains integrated into the spacecraft, allowing for the potential of a rocket-assisted touchdown on land.

Such a rocket-assisted landing also allows for the potential for landings on the moon and Mars, without the need for additional hardware, or additional vehicles, such as landers.

Mars was one of the key subjects presented by SpaceX founder Elon Musk during Monday’s AIAA speech, claiming it is the sole aim of SpaceX to establish transport links with the Red Planet.

Partner Integration:

One of the most impressive elements of the CCDev drive is the funding and encouragement provided to these commercial companies to mature their systems, via the oversight role of NASA’s vast experience and safety requirements.

A large section of the presentation overviews the requirements and roles of the partner integration approach, which literally embeds NASA into the commercial companies, allowing for the oversight role and ensuring NASA standards of safety are being reached, ahead of any crews flying in one of the vehicles.

“Partner Integration Team members are predominantly based at NASA Centers; however, when negotiated and agreed to by the Commercial Partner, a small number of CCP NASA personnel will be embedded at or near the partner’s facility,” lists one of the pages on the approach,” noted the presentation.

“Embedded personnel can consist of either Core Team and/or Support Team member. It is expected that the members of the Core team will be at the Partner facility most of the time. Partner Integration Team support will be tailored in accordance with the SAA and will accommodate CCP and Commercial Partner needs. Invitations of NASA personnel for CP activities are managed only by the Partner Manager.”

The required role also notes that NASA will provide technical expertise to the Commercial Partner through feedback which utilizes two approaches during the evaluation of CCDev milestones.

“Formal – Official milestone review and approval at successful milestone completion. Informal – Technical comments provided to assist the partner without issuing direction or requiring disposition,” the presentation adds. “The Partner Integration Team is not authorized to issue direction to the Commercial Partner.”

Despite NASA bringing money to the table, and their obvious expertise in launching humans into space, the NASA personnel tasked with involvement within the commercial companies will not be allowed to overstep their mark and boss the commercial companies around.

“NASA personnel participate with CCDev partners in their system development as defined by the SAA. CCDev partners have final authority and responsibility for all decisions related to their system development and operations,” the presentation continued.

“NASA personnel will not dictate nor propose specific design or operational solutions to CCDev partners. NASA personnel will ensure fairness and consistency when responding to the commercial company requests. A commercial partner’s design solution or technical approach will not be shared with other commercial companies.”

The companies were also reassured that none of their “secrets” will find their way into the hands of the public – or other “rival” companies – with the NASA representatives treated on a “need to know” basis. As such, it is likely that progress reports on milestones will continue to be noted, while technical details and drawings related to the hardware will remain restricted.

(Images: L2 Content, NASA CCDev, SpaceX, ULA, Boeing)

(As the shuttle fleet retire, NSF and L2 are providing full transition level coverage, available no where else on the internet, from Orion and SLS to ISS and COTS/CRS/CCDEV, to European and Russian vehicles. 

(Click here: http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/l2/ - to view how you can support NASASpaceflight.com)

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Atlas V HR:

The Atlas V is an active expendable launch system in the Atlas rocket family, a family which has a heritage in launching humans into space. Atlas V was formerly operated by Lockheed Martin, and is now operated by the Lockheed Martin-Boeing joint venture ULA.

The two stage rocket is driven by the Russian-built RD AMROSS RD-180 engine – a kerosene/liquid oxygen derivative of the RD-170 engine developed for the Zenit boosters of the Energia rocket – with a Centaur Upper Stage powered by Pratt & Whitney’s RL10 engine burning liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. Atlas V configurations can include Aerojet strap-on boosters.

With 26 launches under its belt since its maiden launch in 2002, the Atlas V has a 100 percent mission success rate, as much as the NRO L-30 mission in 2007 saw an earlier-than-planned shutdown of the Centaur upper stage, resulting in both its passengers being placed in an lower-than-intended orbit. The customer still classed the mission as successful.

The Atlas V is a flight-proven expendable launch vehicle and is currently used by NASA and the Department of Defense (DOD) for critical space missions to launch highly expensive payloads into orbit. Now, Atlas V will walk down the path of proving it can be entrusted with launching humans into orbit.

This process is being kick-started via the unfunded Space Act Agreement (SAA) announced on Monday, which will see NASA collect technical information from ULA on the Atlas V to develop an understanding of system capability for human spaceflight.

Click here for recent Atlas V specific articles: http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/tag/atlas-v/

According to the space agency, NASA will provide feedback to ULA based on its human spaceflight experience for advancing Crew Transportation System (CTS) capabilities and the draft human certification requirements. In turn, ULA will provide NASA feedback on those requirements, including providing input on the technical feasibility and cost effectiveness of NASA’s proposed certification approach.

ULA’s obligations include; continuing to advance the Atlas V CTS concept, including design maturation and analyses. Conduct ULA program reviews as planned, Perform a Design Equivalency Review (DER). Develop Hazard Analyses unique for human spaceflight. Develop a Probabilistic Risk Assessment (PRA). Document Atlas V CTS certification baseline. Conduct Systems Requirements Review (SRR).

The majority of this process is expected to be completed by the end of this year (2011), with the SAA allowing ULA to work with NASA to gain invaluable insight into their unparalled expertise in Human Spaceflight. Through this SAA, NASA’s Commercial Crew Program and ULA will establish an Atlas V system baseline compliance with NASA Crew Transportation System (CTS) requirements and processes.

“This unfunded SAA will look at the Atlas V to understand its design risks, its capabilities, how it can be used within the context of flying our NASA crew and maturing ULA’s designs for the Emergency Detection System (EDS) and launch vehicle processing and launch architectures under a crewed configuration,” noted Ed Mango, NASA’s Commercial Crew Program manager.

In 2010, ULA was awarded $6.7 million by NASA to accompany its own $1.3 million investment to develop an Emergency Detection System prototype test bed. The EDS will monitor critical launch vehicle and spacecraft systems and issue status, warning and abort commands to crew during their mission to low Earth orbit.

EDS is the sole significant element necessary for flight safety to meet the requirements to certify ULA’s launch vehicles for human spaceflight, a certification ULA are confident of acquiring.

“We believe this effort will demonstrate to NASA that our systems are fully compliant with NASA requirements for human spaceflight,” noted George Sowers, vice president of business development. “ULA looks forward to continued work with NASA to develop a U.S. commercial crew space transportation capability providing safe, reliable, and cost effective access to and return from low Earth orbit and the International Space Station.”

The effort to human rate the Atlas V has been characterized as “on-going”. Evidence of this can be seen as far back as 2007, when SpaceDev announced a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with ULA to pursue the potential of launching people and cargo on the Dream Chaser vehicle atop of the Atlas V.

With another agreement already in place with Bigelow at the time, documentation surrounding the Dream Chaser MOU expressed confidence in man-rating the Atlas V 401 and 402 with minimal modifications, allowing the use of the vehicle for commercial passenger transportation and ISS missions.

Now, in 2011, Dream Chaser – a vehicle in the Sierra Nevada Corporation stable – along with Blue Origin and their biconic-shape capsule, are confirmed customers to be lofted uphill by the Atlas V, following the award of four Space Act Agreements in the second round of the agency’s Commercial Crew Development (CCDev-2), a commercial effort aimed to foster domestic crew transportation by the middle of the decade.

According to ULA, those two companies recognize that the use of the flight proven and NASA Certified Atlas V eliminates all risk of launch vehicle development and early flight failures inherent in new, unproven designs – something which gives ULA an advantage over commercial “rival” SpaceX.

Boeing’s CST-100 capsule is yet to confirm its launch vehicle of choice, although the Atlas V would be capable of carrying out that role.

Notably, the SAA only covers the Atlas V – the vehicle funded under NASA CCDev2 Partner agreements which selected Atlas V for their Commercial Transportation System launch vehicle. However, ULA note both Atlas V and Delta IV – the other main ULA vehicle – offer the distinct advantages of flight-demonstrated reliability with a long heritage.

However, with Atlas V selected for technical and business considerations unique to their needs, the vehicle offers some very important benefits for NASA’s Commercial Crew Program. In particular, the Atlas family has a demonstrated reliability with 97 consecutive successes, making Atlas V is the highest confidence, lowest risk launch vehicle.

After all, the argument of trusting the vehicle to launch humans can be seen via Atlas V’s Category 3 certification by NASA, allowing ULA to launch their most expensive, crucial exploration missions, such as Pluto New Horizons, and the upcoming JUNO missions to Jupiter, along with the MSL mission to Mars.

With the unfunded SAA agreement in place, ULA will push on with on-going internal efforts, now with NASA participation, to be coincident with the CCDev2 Period of Performance, which is currently scheduled to conclude in the 2Q of 2012.

ULA will work on establishing the Human Spaceflight baseline for Atlas V, which will involve all aspects of their business from design, manufacturing, and launch operations. The effort will be lead from ULA’s Denver Headquarters, with required participation from the company’s production facility in Decatur, Alabama, and their Florida launch operations facility.

(Images via ULA, Boeing and Lockheed Martin)

(As the shuttle fleet retire, NSF and L2 are providing full transition level coverage, available no where else on the internet, from Orion and SLS to ISS and COTS/CRS/CCDEV, to European and Russian vehicles. To join L2, click here: http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/l2/)

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Delta IV Launch:

GPS IIF-2 will be the second in a series of twelve GPS IIF satellites, which are under construction by Boeing. The GPS Block IIF series is intended to replace the Block IIA series, and will be followed by the Block IIIA spacecraft which are scheduled to begin entering service in 2014. Overall, GPS IIF-2 is the fifty first GPS II satellite to be launched, and the sixty second GPS satellite overall.

The contract to produce the GPS IIF satellites was signed in 1996, with thirty three satellites ordered. In 2001 the order was reduced to 12 spacecraft. Each Block IIF satellite has a mass of around 1,630 kilograms, with a design life of twelve years.

The satellite is equipped with a highly accurate caesium atomic clock to provide accurate navigation signals to users. The Block IIF satellites broadcast signals which are twice as accurate as those broadcast by previous spacecraft. They also broadcast two additional signals. The first of these, M-code, is a jam-resistant military navigation signal. The other, L5, is a civilian signal to aid aircraft navigation.

The first GPS IIF satellite was originally scheduled to enter service in 2006, however following multiple delays it finally reached orbit last May, and has since been assigned the designation USA-213. Following three months of on-orbit testing it was declared usable on 27 August 2010.

GPS IIF-2 will replace the USA-71, or GPS IIA-2, satellite, which was launched on 4 July 1991. USA-71 has been in orbit for twenty years – well over twice its seven and a half year design life, and is one of the oldest operational spacecraft in the GPS constellation. It is likely some of the most advanced GPS vehicle tracking systems have communicated with it over the years.

The launch of GPS IIF-2 marks the seventeenth launch of the United Launch Alliance Delta IV rocket. The Delta IV was developed, along with the Atlas V, as part of the US Air Force’s Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle programme to replace the older Atlas II, Delta II and Titan IV rockets.

It made its first launch in November 2002, placing the Eutelsat W5 satellite into orbit. This was the only time a Delta IV launched a payload for a commercial organisation, however three US Government payloads were subsequently launched under commercial contracts; the GOES 13, 14 and 15 weather satellites.

The Delta IV Medium+(4,2), or M+(4,2) configuration was used to launch GPS IIF-2, with the flight number, or “Delta number” for the mission being Delta 355.

The M+(4,2) configuration features two GEM-60 solid rocket motors augmenting the first stage, and a second stage with a diameter of four metres. Under the old four-digit numbering system, this would be a Delta 9240.

The Delta IV consists of two stages: a Common Booster Core (CBC) and a Delta Cryogenic Second Stage (DCSS), both of which burn cryogenic propellant; liquid hydrogen oxidised by liquid oxygen.

The CBC is the first stage, and is powered by one Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne RS-68 engine. The DCSS is powered by an RL10B-2 engine; a derivative of the original RL10 developed for the Saturn I and Atlas-Centaur rockets in the early 1960s.

Five and a half seconds before launch, the RS-68 engine ignited. A tenth of a second before T-0, the solid rocket motors ignited and the pad swing arms retracted. At T-0 Delta 355 lifted off and began ascending into orbit along a launch azimuth of 105.28 degrees.

About 45.7 seconds after launch Delta 355 passed through Mach 1, and 13.7 seconds later it passed through max-Q, the area of maximum aerodynamic pressure.

The solid rocket motors burned until 92.2 seconds into the flight, at which point they burned out. A hundred seconds after liftoff, the spent motors were jettisoned and fell back to Earth.

The RS-68 continued to power flight until four minutes 5.9 seconds into the mission, at which point it shut down. The shutdown of the RS-68 is termed Main Engine Cutoff, or MECO. Stage separation, by means of pneumatic actuators, occurred 7.1 seconds later.

Following stage separation, the RL10 engine’s nozzle begin to extend. Fourteen and a half seconds after staging, the engine ignited to power the first of the second stage’s three burns, which lasted just under seven minutes and forty six seconds. Ten and a half seconds into the burn, the payload fairing separated from around the satellite.

Once the first burn was completed, Delta 355 entered a nine-minute and 3.8-second coast phase before its second burn. The second burn of the RL10 begsn 21 minutes and 17 seconds after launch, lasting 200.3 seconds. This burn was followed by a much longer coast phase, lasting a little over 176 minutes; almost three hours.

A 99.4-second final burn was performed after the second coast phase to place the satellite into its final orbit. Ten minutes, 40.6 seconds after the completion the final burn, the spacecraft separated from the DCSS, completing a three hour, thirty three minute and five second ascent to medium Earth orbit.

The target orbit for spacecraft separation was one with an apogee of 20,450 kilometres, a perigee of 20,459 kilometres, and 55.0 degrees of inclination.

Eight minutes after spacecraft separation, the upper stage performed a collision avoidance manoeuvre, to put distance between itself and the payload which it deployed. Twenty six and three quarter minutes after that, it will have performed a fuel depletion manoeuvre to dispose of any remaining fuel safely, reducing the chances of the upper stage exploding in orbit. Explosions of upper stages containing unburned fuel are a major contributor to the level of debris in orbit.

Delta 355 launched from the Space Launch Complex 37B (SLC-37B) at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. Launch Complex 37 was originally built between 1959 and 1963 as a two-pad complex for the Saturn I rocket.

The first flight from LC-37B was the first orbital launch of a Saturn I rocket, which took place on 29 January 1964. On 22 January 1968 a Saturn IB carrying the Apollo 5 spacecraft made the last of eight Saturn launches from the complex. The other pad, LC-37A, was never used for a launch.

When the focus of the Apollo programme switched from Earth orbit test flights to Lunar missions, the complex was mothballed ahead of the Apollo Applications programme, which would have seen Apollo spacecraft used for Earth orbit missions after the end of the Lunar programme.

When most of the Apollo Applications programme was cancelled, it was decided that it would be more cost effective to convert one of the Saturn V mobile launch platforms at Launch Complex 39 to accommodate the Saturn IB than to reactivate the older Saturn I pads.

LC-37 was demolished in the 1970s, and remained vacant until construction of the Delta IV began in the late 1990s. Since 1997 all active pads at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station have been termed Space Launch Complexes (SLC) rather than Launch Complexes (LC).

This is the third and final Delta IV launch of the year, with the next launch expected to occur in January 2012, when a Delta IV-M+(5,4) will launch the Wideband Global Satcom 4 (WGS-4) satellite for the US Air Force. Before then, two Delta II launches are scheduled to occur. In September, a Delta II 7920 Heavy will dispatch the GRAIL spacecraft on their way to the Moon, whilst in October a Delta II 7920-10 will launch the much-delayed NPP satellite.

United Launch Alliance’s next launch is currently scheduled for 5 August, when an Atlas V 551 will orbit NASA’s Juno spacecraft, beginning a five year journey to reach Jupiter. Another Atlas V launch in November or December will send the Curiosity spacecraft to Mars.

(Images via ULA and ULA’s Pat Corkery)

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CCDEV-2:

Each of the companies will receive between $22 million and $92.3 million to advance commercial crew space transportation system concepts and mature the design and development of elements of their systems, such as launch vehicles and spacecraft. The funds will be paid on a pre-arranged milestone basis, covering a timeline which reaches out to May, 2012.

While the US will have to pay for seats on the Russian Soyuz after the Shuttle retires this summer – an undesirable scenario which will likely continue until at least the middle of the decade – the goal of CCDev2 is to accelerate the availability of US crew transportation capabilities – both commercial and government – to Low Earth Orbit (LEO) destinations, such as the International Space Station (ISS).

“The next American-flagged vehicle to carry our astronauts into space is going to be a U.S. commercial provider,” said Ed Mango, NASA’s Commercial Crew Program manager. “The partnerships NASA is forming with industry will support the development of multiple American systems capable of providing future access to low-Earth orbit.”

These awards are a continuation of NASA’s CCDev initiatives, which began in 2009 to stimulate efforts within US industry to develop and demonstrate human spaceflight capabilities. More rounds will follow, with one managerial memo speaking of the build-up towards CCDEV-3.

“Team is working the acquisition strategy for CCDev-3,” noted the JSC Senior Staff Meeting Notes for mid April (L2). “Acquisition Strategy Meeting (ASM) in early May.”

SpaceX’s Dragon capsule is comprised of a pressurized capsule and unpressurized trunk used for Earth to LEO transport of pressurized cargo, unpressurized cargo, and/or crew members. An unmanned Dragon was successfully tested during the second launch of their Falcon 9 launch vehicle via the COTS demo mission.

The Dragon capsule is made up of three main elements: the Nosecone, which protects the vessel and the docking adaptor during ascent; the Pressurized Section, which houses the crew and/or pressurized cargo; and the Service Section, which contains avionics, the RCS (Reaction Control System) thrusters, parachutes, and other support infrastructure.

In addition, an unpressurized trunk is included, which provides for the stowage of unpressurized cargo and will support Dragon’s solar arrays and thermal radiators. This vehicle is by far the best known of the four winning proposals.

Sierra Nevada Corporation (SNC) class themselves as the complete system provider and claim to have demonstrated significant progress maturing design and development of the Dream Chaser (DC) Space System (DCSS).

With an appearance of a baby shuttle orbiter, the Dream Chaser would launch atop of an Atlas V – building on studies which range back several years – as first revealed via NASASpaceflight.com’s article on the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with the United Launch Alliance (ULA) in 2007.

As was the main focus for the Atlas V element of the duo, human rating is also cited heavily in SNC’s overview of the work to be conducted on the Dream Chaser – which is a reusable lifting body vehicle based on the form of NASA Langley’s HL-20 spaceplane concept from the 1980s, which can land on a conventional runway.

“Since the ultimate goal is to provide the complete system to safely transport crew and pressurized cargo to and from LEO and the ISS, our human rating plan and ISS interface requirements development remain integral parts of CCDev2,” SNC noted.

“During CCDev we initiated the human rating plan and completed the ISS interface requirements flow down to the design. During CCDev2 we will mature the human rating plan through integrated system safety and hazard reviews, integrating human rating certification requirements in all aspects of the DCSS.”

SNC will receive unpublished amounts of money from their $80m award pot, following the successful completion of 19 milestones, the latter of which is listed as the Free Flight Test, which will be a piloted Flight test from carrier aircraft to characterize handling qualities and approach and landing.

Boeing’s award – the largest at over $92m – is centered around their CST-100 capsule, which is configurable to carry up to seven crew/passengers or an equivalent combination of passengers and pressurized cargo to LEO destinations, including ISS and the BA Sundancer space complex.

The capsule is compatible with multiple launch vehicles, and – following nominal land landings – the vehicle can be reused for up to ten missions.

25 milestones are listed in the Boeing presentation for CCDEV-2, although it is heavily censored, listing only 11 of the milestones, the latter of which will be the Preliminary Design Review (PDR).

By the conclusion of the CCDEV-2 funding period, Boeing also claim they will be 80 percent complete on their Critical Design Review (CDR).

However, Boeing claim they will be ready to provide services by 2015, a target date which is being used by most of the winners of Monday’s awards.

“The Boeing CCTS is a “full-service” system offering NASA and commercial customers safe, reliable, and affordable crew transportation to low earth orbit (LEO) destinations. Our proposed plan accelerates availability of a U.S. capability, achieving a first crewed flight in 2015, and it stimulates growth of space commerce in LEO.”

Blue Origin’s $22m award is for their their biconic-shape capsule, of which very little is currently in the public domain.

However, some details were revealed in their associated award presentation, listing the vehicle is capable of carrying seven passengers – with an ability for cargo – to the ISS, and will be available for independent commercial flights for science, adventure and trips to other orbital destinations.

Interestingly, the vehicle is also capable of a 210 day ISS lifeboat role, something Orion was demoted to by the US government, until the decision was reversed.

Like the Dream Chaser, ULA’s Atlas V is cited as the initial launch vehicle to loft Blue Origin into space, although it is noted the vehicle is designed to be compatible with numerous rockets.

The commercial effort continues the change of direction for Orion’s primary role, which is as a Beyond Earth Object (BEO) vehicle. However, Orion – which NASA continues to rename as the Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle (MPCV) on memos – is also being targeted for a “back up” vehicle role, riding on the Space Launch System (SLS), which is set to debut in 2016.

“Agency is working on an integrated plan for the Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle (MPCV) (formerly Orion), Space Launch Services (SLS) (heavy lift), and 21st century complex,” noted the Staff Senior Notes (L2).

“JSC is coordinating with other Centers on proposals for collaboration. (This is) to accelerate NASA ability to develop critical capabilities required for human exploration beyond LEO, through innovative focused activities (based around system-level integration, testing and demos). Intent: Infuse new technologies into exploration missions.”

However, numerous uncertainties remain, not least with the SLS – which is still undergoing its configuration evaluations at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC). A final SLS report is due in the summer, although NASA Administrator Charles Bolden continues to be more focused on the commercial companies and their role to take over from the contract with the Russians for domestic crew transport to the ISS.

“We’re committed to safely transporting U.S. astronauts on American-made spacecraft and ending the outsourcing of this work to foreign governments,” noted General Bolden. “These agreements are significant milestones in NASA’s plans to take advantage of American ingenuity to get to low-Earth orbit, so we can concentrate our resources on deep space exploration.”

(Further articles will follow. All images via the relevant CCDEV companies, NASA.gov).

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